'OPICAL DISCUSS 
OF AMERICAN HI5T 



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■WWIWWMWMWtf U III H IIIIW IIII IM I U ia 



TEACflKM*> MANUAL AND COURSE 
OF STUDY IN HISTORY AND CIVICS 



i wm M Hum iiii M 



W. C. DO UB 





Class __r. Hi. 
1 

Book_J}a-1.2^ 
Copyright N^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 
AMERICAN HISTORY 



CONSTITUTING A TEACHERS' MANUAL AND 

COURSE OF STUDY IN HISTORY 

AND CIVICS FOR USE IN 



THE ELEMENTART SCHOOLS 



BY 



WILLIAM C. pOUB, A. B. 

(Stanford University) 

Ex-Superinttndent of Schools for Kern County, California 
Author of ^^Educational ^^uestions," '^Grammar by tke Inductive Method,^ 
^^ Topical Discussion of Geography,^' etc. 




tE&f (LCl^itakrt 6i Eap Company 

(incorporated) 
PUBLISHERS 

SAN FRANCISCO 



. I 



LIBRARY nf CONGRESS 

TMrt) Copies Received 

JUN 9 1904 

Cooyrtirht Entry 

CLASS Q. XXo. No. 

AOOPY B 



Copyright^ iqo4 

by 

W. C. Doub 



PREFACE 

This little volume is a working manual for the teacher and 
constitutes a course in history and civics for the elementary 
schools. Many able educators have been consulted in the prepara- 
tion of this course, and it is believed to be so complete in every 
detail that boards of education can adopt it as the course in his- 
tory and civics without further reference to these subjects in the 
school manual or regular course of study. This course has been 
prepared with especial reference to the regular text-books. Teach- 
ers and pupils frequently complain that the regular or official 
text on history is too difficult, and it is hoped that this course will 
be of great assistance to them in the use of this text. The dis- 
cussions, references and questions in this volume are intended for 
the direct help and assistance of the teacher, the object being to 
reduce the teacher's work to a minimum and to provide at the 
same time a broad and progressive course in history and civics. 
In order to further assist the teacher, a pupil's outline for use in 
connection with this course of study has been prepared and is 
bound under a separate cover. Special attention is directed to 
"Questions for Class Recitations" and "Questions for Composi- 
tions and Examinations," which follow each general topic or 
chapter in the work for the seventh and eighth grades. 

A few years ago it would have been necessary to have accom- 
panied this little volume with an explanatory word regarding 
the nature of the work for which it provides. Happily, that time 
is now passed, for nearly all the better teachers and schools in 
the United States are now doing the work for which the course 
of study herein outlined makes specific provision. The com- 
bining of the work in civics with that on history is one of the 
most valuable features of this course, and a feature which has 
been thoroughly tested in the schools of the East with most satis- 
factory results. 

William C. Doub 

San Francisco^ April 6, 1904 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PREFACE 10 

BOOKS II 

MINIMUM AMOUNT OF WORK 15 

HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER GRADES 18 

Third Year Work 18 

Fourth Year Work 20 

Fifth Year Work 22 

Sixth Year Work 27 

INTRODUCTORY 33 

Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America 35 

Ancient Ideas of the World 35 

False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of Civilization 35 

Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration 36 

Conditions Leading to Exploration 37 

Discoveries and Explorations 41 

Voyages of the Northmen 41 

Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 41 

English Discoveries and Explorations 41 

French Discoveries and Explorations 41 

Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 41 

Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 41 

Disposition of Territory in the New World 43 

Decline of Spanish Power 44 

Spain's Earlj^ Supremacy on the Sea 44 

Defeat of the Spanish Armada 44 

The American Indian 46 

Origin of Name 46 

Classification According to Civilization 46 

Appearance and Manner of Living 47 

Character 47 

THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 49 

Origin, Growth and Political History 54 

Virginia 54 

Maryland 56 

North and South Carolina 57 

Georgia 58 



6 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colonies 6l 

Connecticut and New Haven 63 

Rhode Island 63 

New Hampshire and Maine 63 

New York yi, 

New Jersey 74 

Delaware 75 

Pennsylvania 75 

The French in North America 78 

French Explorations and Settlements 80 

Contrast of French and English Settlements 80 

Relations of the French with the Indians 81 

Early Conflict between the French and the English 81 

The French and Indian War 82 

Institutional Life in the Colonies 87 

Industrial Conditions 95 

Social Conditions 106 

Government 116 

Religion : Growth of Religious Liberty 129 

Education 134 

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 139 

Causes and Beginnings 141 

English Control of Colonial Commerce 141 

Taxation without Representation 142 

Committees of Correspondence 144 

The Repressive or Intolerable Acts 14S 

The First Continental Congress 145 

Preparation by the Colonists 14S 

Concord and Lexington 145 

Siege and Capture of Boston 145 

Declaration of Independence 145 

Comparison of Resources of England and America 145 

Campaigns 150 

The Campaign to Separate New England from the Other States, 
and the Campaign against Philadelphia and the Middle States.. 151 

Campaign against the Southern Colonies 153 

Results of the War 1 53 

THE CRITICAL PERIOD 159 

The Nature of the National Government 161 

The Northwest Territory 162 

Conditions of Money and Business T63 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 

Anarchy and Rebellion 164 

The Constitutional Convention 164 

The Constitution 1 67 

Organization of the New Government 169 

NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE. .. .172 

The Period of European Interference 177 

Origin of American Neutrality in European Affairs 177 

The Jay Treaty 178 

Breach with France 179 

The Alien and Sedition Acts 179 

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 180 

The Purchase of Louisiana 180 

European Interference with American Commerce 181 

The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Independence 182 

The Hartford Convention 185 

The Purchase of Florida 185 

The Monroe Doctrine 186 

Financial Legislation : the Tariff 190 

Hamilton's Financial Measures 190 

Jefferson and Gallatin's Financial Policy 191 

The National Bank and State Banks 191 

Tariff Legislation 192 

Political Parties 195 

Rise of Political Parties 195 

Fall of the Federalist Party 196 

The Republican Party 196 

Growth of the Nation 198 

Growth in Territory and Population 198 

Movement of Population 198 

Results of Westward Expansion 199 

Growth of National Unity 202 

Institutional Life 205 

Industrial Conditions 205 

Social Conditions 208 

Government 208 

Religion 209 

Education 209 

WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 212 

Political ^Iethods and Political Parties 216 

Meaning of Jackson's Election 216 

The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Independence 182 

Political Methods 216 

Political Parties 219 



8 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Financial Legislation : the Tariff 222. 

The Tariff 222 

Destruction of the National Bank 223 

The Panic of 1837 223 

The Independent or Sub-Treasury System 225 

Westward Expansion 227 

Annexation of Texas 227 

The Mexican War 227 

The Oregon Boundary 228 

Slavery 230 

The Abolition Movement 230 

Expansion of Slave Territory ; The Compromise of 1850 232 

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill 233 

The Struggle for Kansas 233 

The Dred Scott Decision 234 

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates ; Secession 234 

The Election of Lincoln 235 

Institutional Life 237 

Industrial Conditions 237 

Social Conditions 239 

Government 240 

Religion 240 

Education 241 

THE CIVIL WAR 245 

Causes 245 

Comparative Resources of the North and South 246 

Available Soldiers and Commanders 246 

Military Supplies 246 

Financial Resources 247 

Facilities for Transportation 247 

Campaigns 247 

Operations of the Army of the Potomac, down to the Time when 
Grant was Placed in Command of all the Armies of the United 

States 248 

The Work of Grant 249 

The Work of the Navy 251 

Blockade of the Southern Ports 251 

Commerce Destroyers 251 

The Revolution in Naval Warfare 252 

Results 252 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 9' 

RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 255 

Reconstruction of Seceded States 259 

Relation of the Seceded States to the National Government 259 

Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson 259 

Reconstruction Policy of Congress 260 

Financial and Industrial Legislation 263 

Financial Legislation 263 

Tariff Legislation 265 

Industrial Legislation 266 

Foreign Relations 270 

Purchase of Alaska 270 

Treaty of Washington 270 

Application of the Monroe Doctrine 270 

Growth of Arbitration 271 

The Spanish-American War 272 

Isthmian Canal 274 

Political Methods and Political Parties 277 

Political Methods 277 

Political Parties 277 

Institutional Life 279 

Industrial Conditions 279 

Social Conditions 283 

Education 284 



BOOKS 

BOOKS FOR PUPILS 

The books listed below should be placed in the hands oi 
pupils at the time indicated. Thomas's Elementary History 
of the United States and Channing's First Lessons in United 
States History are to be used in the sixth grade as provided 
for further over in this manual. The regular text is to be 
used in both the seventh and eighth grades, and the Pupil's 
Outline in /American History is to be used by the pupils in 
the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth grades. 

Elementary Work 

1. Fifth Grade 

(a) Doub — Pupil's Outline in American History 

(b) Any Good Local State History 

(c) Blaisdell — Stories from English History, or 

(d) Warren — Stories from English History 

2. Sixtli Grade 

(a) Thomas — Elementary History of the United States 

(b) Channing — First Lessons in United States History 

Advanced Work 

1. SeventJi Grade 

(a) The Regular or Official Text-Book on American 

' History 

(b) Hart — Source Reader of American History, No. i 

(c) Hart — Source Reader of American History, No. 2 

2. Eighth Grade 

(a) The Regular or Official Text-Book on American 

History 

(b) Hart — Source Reader of American History, No. 3 

(c) Hart — Source Reader of American History, No. 4 



12 BOOKS 

The books listed above may be purchased by the pupil or 
with library, district and county funds. All these books will 
be of distinct value to the pupil in his school work, and most 
parents, therefore, will desire that their children own them. 
Hart's Source Readers are of especial value and are most 
interesting. In speaking of these books in the November 
number of the Western Journal of Education, Prof. Moore 
of the University of California said : " 'These books are 
made up of sources, but not of sources in the garb of three 
centuries ago, unfamiliar to modern children. The language 
and spelling have been freely altered, while the thought has 
been preserved. Much has been omitted, but it has not been 
the intention to add any statement not expressed in the origi- 
nal. If children are interested in these books, it will be be- 
cause their ancestors were interesting, and not because a 
modern mind has invented a story for them.' These state- 
ments from the preface will indicate quite clearly the plan 
of this series of readers. That plan has been carried out 
almost to perfection. It would be difficult in all the range of 
children's books to find anything so nearly ideal. What may 
with truth be called the Iliad of our nation is here put into 
suitable form for use in the schools. Will children care for 
them? Of course they will, for they tell of the heroic age 
more dramatically, as the real is more dramatic than the 
imaginary, than any tale written for them could. Indeed, 
we are persuaded that no such piece of good fortune has 
happened to the youth of this land for a long time as the 
preparation of this series. Three or four worthy objects are 
attained in it. It places good literature in the hands of chil- 
dren. It lays a broad foundation for future study of history. 
It imparts a rich and varied knowledge of the life of the 
pioneers. It puts reading upon a natural basis. And the 
superiority of the matter offered almost guarantees successful 
expression. The first volume, entitled 'Colonial Children,' 
tells the story of the discovery of America, of the Indians 
and of the life of the colonists. The second volume is entitled 
'Cam])s and Firesides of the Revolution.' The third, 'How 



BOOKS 13 

Onr Grandfathers Lived.' The fourth contains the 'Romance 
of the Civil War.' " 

The Pupil's Outline in American History which has been 
prepared for use in connection with this Manual, contains 
exactly the same topics and the same references as are given 
in this manual for the work of the fifth, sixth, seventh and 
eighth grades. The Pupil's Outline contains, however, 
simply the topics, references and questions, all the discussions 
contained in this manual being omitted, so as to prevent the 
pupils from memorizing the same. This systematic arrange- 
ment of topics is almost as valuable as the references them- 
selves, because it gives the pupil a connected idea of the 
nation's history by indicating plainly tl>e relation of events. 

II BOOKS FOR GENERAL READING AND REFER- 
ENCE FOR THE ELEMENTARY WORK 
I. Fifth and SixtJi Grades 

(a) Books and Material of an Elementary Nature on 

Local State History 

(b) Books and Material of an Elementary Nature on 

the History of the LTnited States 

HI BOOKS AND MATERIAL FOR READING AND 
REFERENCE IN CONNECTION WITH THE 
ADVANCE WORK 
Elson's Side Lights gn American History in two small 
volumes should be in every library. They are very valuable 
and very interesting. Specific references are given to Mc- 
Master, Thomas and Montgomery throughout all the ad- 
vanced work, and to Fiske until the adoption of the Federal 
Constitution. There should be enough copies of these books 
in the library for reading and ready reference. In consult- 
ing other books the pupil should be instructed to refer to the 
indexes. 

IV BOOKS FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS 

(a) Doub — Topical Discussion of American History; 
Teachers' Manual and Course of Study in His- 
tory and Civics 



14 BOOKS 

(b) Channing — Student's History of the United States 

(c) Lodge — A Short History of the Enghsh Colonies 

in America 

(d) Ashley — American Government 

A copy of each of these four books should be on the teach- 
er's desk and should be purchased with school funds. It may 
not be out of place at this point to call attention to the fact 
that a large amount of school money is frequently wasted. 
A large per cent of the books and material in many district 
libraries is almost useless from the standpoint of school work 
or desirable general reading. It would be an excellent thing 
if boards of education would restrict the library list abso- 
lutely to a small and well selected list of books all of which 
have a direct and important relation to the course of study. 
The board and superintendent should then insist that the 
library money be used exclusively to purchase the books and 
material which they have selected. The proper use of the 
library money along these lines would soon result in securing 
a library that would be of great value to the pupil in connec- 
tion with his school work and general reading. Sometimes 
the best interests of the school are subserved by using a small 
amount of the district and county funds for the purchase of 
books. 

V ABBREVIATIONS USED IN CITING REFERENCES 

Elementary Work 
T. Thomas's Elementary History of the United States 
C. Channing's First Lessons in United States History 
Sx. Sexton's Stories of California 
Wa. Wagner's Pacific History Stories 
B. Blaisdell's Stories from English History 
W. Warren's Stories from English History 

Advanced Work 
H. I Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. i 
H. II Hart's Source Reader in American Historv, No. 2 



MINIMUM AMOUNT OF WORK 15 

H. Ill Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 3 
H. IV Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 4 
Mc. McMaster's School History of the United States 
T. Thomas's History of the United States 
M. Montgomery's Leading Facts in American History 
F. Fiske's History of the United States 

MINIMUM AMOUNT OF WORK 

The work outhned for the third, fourth, fifth and sixth grades 
has been so arranged as to correlate closely with the work on the 
other subjects. The work in these lower grades, therefore, will 
require but very little extra time on the part of either teacher 
or pupil. Some schools, however, may not desire to do this work. 
This manual has been so arranged that the work of the seventh 
and eighth years is independent of that in the lower grades in so 
far as any direct relation is concerned. If a board of education 
desires, therefore, it may omit any or all of the work outlined 
for the lower grades and adopt only that prepared for the seventh 
and eighth years. In addition to omitting the work of the lower 
grades some superintendents and boards of education may not 
desire to require all the references cited on the topics of the 
seventh and eighth years. This omission may easily be made by 
stating the minimum number of references required. The mini- 
mum should not be less than the regular text and Hart's Source 
Readers. If a board wishes to adopt only a part of the work of 
the lower grades, it is recommended that the work on the local 
history of the state be retained. 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 

IN THE 

LOWER GRADES 



18 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

The object of the work in history and civics in the lower grades 
is to prepare the pupil for the formal study of these subjects in 
the seventh and eighth grades, and to give those pupils who must 
leave school before they reach the more advanced grammar grades, 
some knowledge of American history. The plan as outlined 
below makes most of this work a part of the work on other sub- 
jects. As arranged, the elementary work on history and civics 
constitutes much of the language work and provides much excel- 
lent material for the pupil's general reading. This correlation 
economizes the time of the teacher and pupil and tends to pre- 
vent an over-crowding of the course of study. The arrangement 
of this work as given below is an attempt to provide a definite 
and workable outline for the use of teachers, and one that will 
result in giving the pupil a good preparation for the formal study 
of history and civics in the last two grades of the grammar school. 

THIRD YEAR WORK 

All the work here outlined for the third grade is to be pre- 
sented orally by the teacher. After the teacher has presented the 
topic of the month in story form, different pupils should be 
required to stand and re-tell the story. Either before or after this 
oral re-telling of the story by different members of the class, a 
pupil should be required to pass to the blackboard and write 
the story as the class reconstructs it. This constitutes the best 
possible work on language, and usually secures the active interest 
and co-operation of every pupil. Under the sympathetic guidance 
of the teacher, each pupil, by actual practice, is learning how to 
use capitals and the simpler marks of punctuation ; he is learning 
something about the use and selection of words, and about para- 
graphing and other principles of language construction. As the 
pupils reconstruct the story for the pupil at the board, they should 
be led by the teacher to discuss and to apply these simpler prin- 
ciples of constructive grammar, and to learn new ones as the com- 
plexity of their language requires their use. After the different 
pupils have retold the story orally and after the class has recon- 
structed it on the board as indicated above, each pupil should be 



IN THE LOWER GRADES 19 

required to reproduce it in the form of a composition, and 
nothing hut his hest work should he accepted hy the teacher. 
From the standpoint of language, the work on one history story 
is of much more value to the pupil than would be a dozen lessons 
like those contained in the average language book. This work 
on the history stories, together with similar work on literature 
stories, and on original compositions on other subjects, should 
constitute nearly all the language work in the first six grades of 
the elementary schools and a large part of that work in the seventh 
and eighth grades. The work on the history stories, therefore, 
is to be made a part of the language work. 

In presenting the history work of each month, the teacher should 
weave it into story form and make it just as interesting as pos- 
sible. It should always be borne in mind, however, that the 
stories or talks of the teacher on each topic should be true to 
historical fact. The talk on the topic of the first month, Govern- 
ment in the Home, and on the topic of the second month Govern- 
ment in the School, should impress on the pupil the necessity 
and object of government. It may be rather difficult to present 
these two topics in story form, but the work on Civics should 
begin with the child's personal environment. In the fourth grade 
the work on Civics deals with city, county and district government 
and in the fifth grade with state government. The work on 
Civics in these three grades should give the pupil a general 
idea of local and state government and prepare him for the more 
formal study of government in the seventh and eighth grades. 
The other topics of this grade can be presented easily in story 
form of the most interesting nature. The pupil will be deeply 
interested in the origin of Thanksgiving and the conditions under 
which the Pilgrims ate the first Thanksgiving dinner. The topic 
of the fourth month, the Story of Christmas, can be presented in 
story form along the same general lines. The boyhood of Wash- 
ington, Franklin, Lincoln and Grant can be made most inter- 
esting to children in story form, and will introduce them to the 
most interesting periods of our history. By referring to the 
index of Thomas's Elementary History and Channing's First 
Lessons in United States History, the teacher will find ample 
material on which to base this work. 



20 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

FIRST MONTH 
Talks on Government in the Home 

SECOND MONTH 
Talks on Government in the School 



Thanksgiving 
Christmas 



THIRD MONTH 
FOURTH MONTH 



FIFTH MONTH 
Boyhood of Washington 

SIXTH MONTH 
Boyhood of Franklin 

SEVENTH MONTH 
Boyhood of Lincoln 

EIGHTH MONTH 
Boyhood of Grant 

NINTH AND TENTH MONTHS 
Work to be selected by the Teacher 

FOURTH YEAR WORK 

In studying the topic of the first month, the pnpils will be 
very much interested in talking with their parents and others 
about the life and hardships of the early settlers of the neighbor- 
hood and county. They should be encouraged to secure all the 
information possible in order that they may become fairly familiar 
with the early history of their county and city. The topic of the 
second month. Local Government, should receive careful consider- 
ation. The pupils should secure a good idea of the school gov- 
ernment of the school district and citv. They should learn 



IN THE LOWER GRADES 21 

how school districts are formed ; how the school trustees and 
the members of the city board of education are elected ; how 
the teachers are elected ; the object for maintaining the schools ; 
and why parents are so willing to be taxed for the support of the 
public school system. From this month's work the pupil should 
also learn about county and city government. He should learn 
how county and city officers are elected and the general duties of 
the same. Some of the pupils will no doubt be acquainted with 
some of the county and city officials, and this personal element 
should be emphasized as much as possible. It is not supposed of 
course that the pupils will secure a thorough knowledge of local 
government from this month's work, but they should secure 
a general idea of the same and should have created in them a 
desire to learn more about the government of the school district, 
county and city. The history work of the other six months of 
this grade is to be presented as indicated by the suggestions on 
the third grade work. 

FIRST MONTH 
Early History of the Neighborhood and County 

SECOND MONTH 
Local Government 

THIRD MONTH 
Columbus 

FOURTH MONTH 
Sir Walter Raleigh 

FIFTH MONTH 
Captain John Smith 

SINTH MONTH 

Miles Standish 

SEVENTH MONTH 
William Penn 

EIGHTH MONTH 
Daniel Boone 



22 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

NINTH AND TENTH MONTHS 
Work to be selected by the Teacher 

FIFTH YEAR WORK 

With this grade the pupil is to begin the systematic reading of 
history. The nature of the reading to which reference is given 
is naturally interesting to the pupil, but great care must be taken 
in order to prevent this work from becoming dry and a drudgery 
to him. Before asking the pupil to begin reading the references 
on any topic for any month, the teacher in a short talk should 
interest him in the topic. The pupils should all be required to com- 
plete the reading of the references on any topic by a given time, 
but they should be encouraged to do this reading without any 
thought of a recitation, or outline of any kind. After the read- 
ing on a topic is completed, the teacher should select the more 
important points covered by that topic and ask the pupils to 
prepare for a recitation on these points. The entire topic can 
then be treated in accordance with the suggestions on the work 
of the third grade, and should be made to constitute an important 
part of the pupil's language work. 

The work of the first four months of this grade is on local 
state history and from it the pupil should secure a fair idea of 
the history, resources and government of the state. During the 
fourth month the government of the state should receive careful 
consideration. The pupil should understand the object of state 
government and the reasons for dividing it into the legislative, 
executive and judicial departments. He should learn the official 
titles for the different state officials, how they are elected and 
the general powers and duties of each. In connection with the 
work of the first three months, each pupil should own a copy of 
a good local state history and should make liberal use of other 
good books and material on the history of the state. The work 
herein outlined on California will serve to indicate the nature 
of that which should be done on state history. For the first three 
months of this grade two lines of work on California have been 
definitely outlined. It is suggested that at least one of the lines be 



IN THE LOWER GRADES 23 

carefully completed. The first outline for these three months' 
work provides for a careful correlation of the early history of 
California with a description of her natural resources and the his- 
tory of how these natural resources have been developed. In 
connection with this work each pupil should own a copy of 
Sexton's Stories of California. It is the most interesting, com- 
prehensive and truthful little book yet written on California for the 
use of young pupils. Some schools may wish to have the work 
on California during these first three months deal largely with 
the early history of the state. Those schools that desire to do 
this should complete the work provided for in the second out- 
line. In connection with this work each pupil should own a copy 
of Wagner's Pacific History Stories, which has been revised 
especially for this work. During the first four months of this 
grade, pupils should read " The Spanish in the Southwest " by 
Mrs. Rose Winterburn. There need be no special recitation on 
the subject matter of this book, but the teacher should require 
each pupil to read it in connection with the four months' work on 
California, because it will give the pupil at least a general idea 
of Pacific Coast history and assist in the treatment of some of 
the assigned topics on California. 

FIRST MONTH 

I The Men Who Discovered California 

Sx. 1-7 

II The Spanish and the Missions 

Sx. 8-29 

III How California Became Part of the United States 

Sx. 30-36 

IV Gold and the Argonauts 

Sx. 37-66 

V The Overland Railroad 

Sx. 67-74 



24 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

SECOND MONTH 

I The Story of the Farms, the Orchards and the Vine- 

yards OF California 
Sx. 75-91 

II The Story of the Orange and the Lemon 

Sx. 92-101 

III Flowers and Plants 

Sx. 102-110 

IV The Big Trees 

Sx. 110-120 

V The Birds and Wild Animals of California 

Sx. 121-144 

THIRD MONTH 

I In Salt and Fresh Water 

Sx. 145-158 

II About California's Indians 

Sx. 159-168 

III The Story of San Francisco 

Sx. 169-179 

IV Men California Remembers 

Sx. 180-190 

V California Climate and Scenery 

Sx. 191-208 

FOURTH MONTH 

State Government 



The three months' work outHned below on the history of Cali- 
fornia corresponds to the first three months covered by the out- 
hne above, and deals with the early history of the state and 
the remainder of the Pacific Coast. 



IN THE LOWER GRADES 25 

FIRST MONTH 

I Discovery of the Pacific 

Wa. Chap, i 

II Voyages of Discovery Along the Pacific Coast 

Wa. Chap. 2 

III Overland Discoveries 

Wa. Chap. 3 

IV The Natives 

Wa. Chap. 4 

SECOND MONTH 

I The Missions 

Wa. Chap. 5 

II Early Settlements 

Wa. Chap. 6 

III The Discovery of Gold 

Wa. Chap. 7 

IV The Formation of the State 

Wa. Chap. 8 

THIRD MONTH 

I The State Government 

W^a. Chap. 9 

II San Francisco 

Wa. Chap. 10 

III The Industrial Development 

Wa. Chap. 11 

IV Historical Landmarks 

Wa. Chap. 12 

The reading on English history assigned for the last four 
months of this grade is of the utmost importance. The history 



26 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

of the United States is closely connected with, in fact, is a part of, 
English history. It is very important, therefore, that the child 
should secure at least a general idea of English history. The two 
books to which references are given are splendidly adapted for 
securing this result. They are of the deepest interest to the 
pupil, and the teacher will find it an easy matter to induce each 
pupil to read them during the four months assigned to this work. 
No attempt should be made to cover these books closely by means 
of recitations, but there should be an occasional recitation, and 
an occasional discussion by the teacher, in order to make sure that 
the reading is being properly done. The pupils in the latter 
part of the fifth grade are old enough to do this reading without 
much assistance from the teacher, but she should closely super- 
vise this work in order that her pupils may secure the proper 
results from the time they devote' to it. 

FIFTH MONTH 

England from Early Days to the Norman Conquest 
B. 1-52; W. 1-61 

SIXTH MONTH 

England from the Norman Conquest to the End of the 
Hundred Years' War 
B. 53-99; W. 62-137 

SEVENTH MONTH 

England froai the Hundred Years' War to the Revolution 
of 1688 
B. 100-144; W. 138-307 

EIGHTH MONTH 

England from the Revolution of 1688 to the Present Time 
B. 145-185 ; W. 308-462 

NINTH AND TENTH MONTHS 
Work to be selected bv the teacher 



IX THE LOWER GRADES 27 

SIXTH YEAR WORK 

The work of the sixth grade deals with the history of the 
United States. The first month covers the period of , discovery 
and exploration ; the second month, the settlement of the southern 
colonies ; the third month, the settlement of New England ; the 
fourth montli, the settlement of the middle colonies ; the fifth 
month, the period of the Revolution and the adoption of the Fed- 
eral Constitution; the sixth month, the period between the adop- 
tion of the Federal Constitution and the War of 1812; the 
seventh month, the period from 1812 to the election of Lincoln ; 
and the eighth month the period from i860 to the present time. 
This work should not consist of the fiction which has grown up in 
connection with our history, and of which the average biographi- 
cal primary history largely consists. While the two books 
assigned are as interesting as a novel, they are true to historical 
facts. The pupil should own each of these books. The refer- 
ences to Channing should always be read by the pupil before 
he reads those to Thomas's Elementary History, because Chan- 
ning's language and treatment are simpler than those of Thomas. 
The teacher by a short talk should always interest the pupil in 
each topic before asking him to read the references. After the 
reading on a topic is completed, it should be treated as indicated 
by the suggestions on the work of the third and fifth grades. 

Professor McMurry has just had published three books of Pio- 
neer History Stories. These books have been prepared especially 
for use in the intermediate grades. The title of the first book is 
Pioneers on Land and Sea ; the second book. Pioneers of the 
Mississippi A'^alley ; the third book. Pioneers of the Rocky Moun- 
tains and the West. These three books are distinctly the best 
and most interesting for young pupils yet written along these 
lines, and should be read by every pupil in the sixth grade. 



FIRST MONTH 



Columbus 

C. 6-17; T. 7-25 



28 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

II The Cabots 

C. 1 1 ; T. 26-29 

III Why the New World Was Called America 

C. 12 

IV DeSoto 

C. 14-15; T. 31-39 • 

V Drake 

C. 23-25 ; T. 40-43 

VI Cartier 

C. 21-23 

VII Raliegh 

C. 27 ; T. 43-49 

SECOND MONTH 

I Virginia 

C. 28-36; T. 50-61, II 7-12 1 

II Maryland 

C. 36-37 ; T. 92-94 

III The Carolinas 

C. 37 

IV Georgia 

T. 133-138 

THIRD MONTH 

I The Pilgrims 

C. 41-50 ; T. 67-83 

II The Puritans 

C. 50-54 : T. 85-94 

III King Philip's War 

T. 95-100 



IN THE LOWER GRADES 29 

FOURTH MONTH 

I New York and New Jersey 
C. 55-58; T. 102-109 

n Pennsylvania and Delaware 
C. 59-61 ; T. 123-132 

FIFTH MONTH 
I Franklin 

C. 67-74; T. 150-167 

H Washington Before the Revolution 
C. 75-83 ; T. 168-186 

HI The Revolution 

C. 84-118; T. 187-216 

IV The Convention 

C. 120-122: T. 211-216 

SIXTH MONTH 

I Daniel Boone 

C. 123-125; T. 219-230 

II Jefferson 

C. 136-138; T. 232-240 

HI Lewis and Clarke 

C. 138-140: T. 241-247 

IV Early Inventions 

C. 160-170; T. 253-264. 277-288 

SEVENTH MONTH 

I The War of 1812 

C. 141-147; T. 265-276 

II Jackson and Webster 

c. 155-159 

III Texas, the Mexican War and California 

C. 175-179. T87-190: T. 299-304 



30 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

EIGHTH MONTH 

[ Lincoln and Douglas 

C. 181-185, 191-194; T. 306-316 

n The Civil War 

C. 195-234; T. 318-327 

HI The United States Since the Civil War 
C. 235-253; T. 329-338 

NINTH AND TENTH MONTHS 
Work to be selected by the teacher 



SEVENTH YEAR WORK 



INTRODUCTORY 

A topical outline similar to the one below precedes each gen- 
eral topic or chapter of the work for the seventh and eighth 
grades. Each outline consists of the topical arrangement of the 
subdivisions of the general topic. Specific references are given on 
each subdivision. These topical outlines and the references given 
are exact duplicates of those in the Pupil's Outline in American 
History, and they are placed in this manual for the assistance and 
convenience of the teacher. 

A CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY 
OF AMERICA 

I Ancient Ideas of the World 

M. 1-2 ; E. 23-25 

II False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of 

Civilization 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

HI Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration 
(To be discussed by the teacher) 

IV Conditions Leading to Exploration 

1. Increasing Importance of Commerce 

Mc. 9-10; F. 21-22 

2. Need of Nezv Trade Routes 

' Mc. lo-ii: T. 7-9; M. 4-9; F. 23, 26-27 

B DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

I Voyages of the Northmen 

H. I. 1-3 ; T. e^y; M. 2-4; F. 19-21 

II Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 

Mc. 11-14, 17-22; H. I. 4-6, 10-19; T. 7-16; M. 
14-18, 23-27, 28-31 ; F. 27-30, 35-37, 40-46 



34 INTRODUCTORY 

III English Discoveries and Explorations 

Mc. 14, 26-29; H. I. 7-8, 23-25; T. II, 14-16; M. 
18-20, 33-38; F. 30, 59, 62-64 

IV French Discoveries and Explorations 

Mc. 26-29; T. 16-17; M. 27-28, 31-33; F. 50-54 

V Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 

Mc. 14-16; H. I. 10; T. 12; M. 20-22; F. 32-35 

VI Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 

Mc. 36-39; T. 22-23; M. 67-69; F. 130 

C DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW 
WORLD 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

D DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER 

I Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

II Defeat of the Spanish Armada 

F. 60-62 

E THE AMERICAN INDIAN 

I Origin of Name 

Mc. 66; T. 11; M. 15; F. 2 

II Classification According to Civilization 

Mc. 68 ; T. 4-6 ; F. 3-4, 8-14 

1. Savage Indians 

2. Barbarous Indians 

3. Half -Civilised Indians 

III Appearance and Manner of Living 

Mc. 66-68; H. I. 95-97, 116-119, 121-125; H. II. 
y2-y6; T. 1-4; M. 40-44; F. 3-7 

IV Character 

Mc. 69-70; H. I. 113-114, 116-119; M. 45-46; F. 8 



INTRODUCTORY 

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF 

AMERICA 

I Ancient Ideas of the World 

For more than six thousand years the people of the Old 
World believed that the earth was flat, and that it was all 
covered with water except that part occupied by Europe, 
Asia and Africa. Until a little more than four hundred 
years ago, the people of the Old World had no idea that 
North America, South America, Australia and numerous 
islands in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans existed. The New 
World has existed and has been inhabited by mankind and 
by the lower animals for many thousands of years, and yet 
until recent years it was totally unknown to the people of 
Europe. Up to about four hundred years ago, not a single 
man that ever lived had any accurate idea as to how large 
even Asia and Africa were. The people of Europe — at least 
some of them — were acquainted with western Asia and 
northern Africa, but they did not know how far these conti- 
nents extended or how large they were. Marco Polo and a 
few others had visited China and had heard of Japan, but this 
was all Europe knew of eastern Asia, and it knew still less 
about southern Africa. For thousands of years the great, civi- 
lized nations of Asia, northern Africa and southern Europe 
existed, and yet the people of those nations lived and died be- 
lieving that the earth was flat, that the New World did not ex- 
ist, and that Africa and Asia were much smaller than they 
are. 

II False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of Civili- 

zation 

This wrong idea which the people of Europe had for so 
many thousand years, regarding the extent of the land and 
the shape of the earth, was not due to lack of a high state of 



36 INTRODUCTORY 

civilization. The people of Greece more than twenty-three 
hundred years ago and the people of Rome more than two 
thousand years ago were much better educated than were the 
people of Europe four hundred years ago, when Columbus 
discovered the New World. The civilizations which these 
ancient Greeks and Romans produced excelled in many ways 
the civilization which existed in Europe during the time of 
Columbus. The literature, the sculpture and the fine, noble 
buildings produced by them have never yet been excelled, and 
in some things along these lines we cannot do as well as was 
done in ancient Greece and Rome. 

Ill Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration 

While the people of Europe at the time the New World, 
was discovered were not so intelligent along many lines as 
were the Greeks and Romans, they lived under conditions 
which would cause them to think more about the extent of 
the land and the shape of the earth, and hence they would 
naturally have a greater desire to find out the truth about 
these matters. The Greeks and Romans occupied the penin- 
sulas of Italy and Greece, which together are not so large 
as the state of Texas, and less than one-twenty-seventh as 
large as the lest of Europe. Half-civilized people lived in all 
the other parts of Europe except those parts conquered by 
Rome. The Greeks and Romans were kept busy defending 
themselves against these people and were finally compelled to 
submit to them. They had all they could do to learn about 
Europe and the other continents around the Mediterranean 
Sea, without trying to explore the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans, and they seem to have had no desire to do so. Aris- 
totle, a Greek philosopher who lived twenty-two hundred 
years ago, believed that the earth was round and that eastern 
Asia could be reached by sailing west from western Europe. 
Some other philosophers who lived between the time of 
Aristotle and the discovery of America had the same idea, 
but the people of Greece and Rome, and later those in the 



Conditions Favorable to the Diseoi'ery of America 37 

rest of Europe, were too busy with the affairs and conditions 
in the Old World to think seriously about these ideas, or to 
attempt to put them into practice by sailing west out over the 
Atlantic Ocean. 

IV Conditions Leading to Exploration 

It was quite different a little more than four hundred years 
ago when the New World was discovered. More people 
lived in Europe then than ever before, and through natural 
advancement and the influence of Greek and Roman laws, 
literature, and ideas, all Europe had become civilized. Hav- 
ing occupied all of Europe, having become more intelligent 
and progressive, it is but natural that many of the practical 
and educated men of Europe, as well as the philosophers, 
should ask themselves the question — what lies beyond the 
water? This desire to know more about the size and shape 
of the earth, together with the improvement in shipbuilding 
and the practical use of the compass for the purpose of navi- 
gation, would soon have led to the exploration of the Atlantic 
and Pacific oceans and to the discovery of America, even if 
the condition of commerce, which is discussed below, had not 
made the business men of Europe extremely anxious to se- 
cure some new way by which they could reach the rich 
products of India and eastern Asia. 

I. Increasing Importance of Commerce 

The Greeks and Romans traded a great deal with the 
people of Asia, but when the Roman Empire was destroyed 
about fourteen hundred years ago by the half-civilized peo- 
ple of central Europe, this commerce was almost ruined. 
During the seven hundred years from the time of the fall 
of the Roman Empire (476 A. D.) to 1200 A. D., Europe 
traded very little with Asia, the people of Europe being- 
only half-civilized. About six hundred years ago the people 
of Europe had become settled in well organized govern- 
ments, were becoming better civilized and educated, and 



38 INTRODUCTORY 

were becoming better acquainted with Asia and the things 
produced there. The merchants of Europe began to trade 
the woods, metals and other things which it produced to 
the people of Asia for the spices, pearls, silk, gems and 
other things which they produced. By 1400 A. D. this 
trade had increased until it constituted a great commerce 
or interchange of products between the peoples of Europe 
and Asia. Great commercial cities grew up, whose pros- 
perity depended largely on this commerce. Venice and 
Genoa were two of the most important of these cities, and 
their merchants carried on an immense trade with Asia. 
From the commercial cities on the coast, the rich products 
of Asia were sent inland to the different parts of Europe, 
and naturally there was an increasing demand for these 
comforts and luxuries. 

2. Need of New Trade Routes 

The goods which Europe sent to Asia and which Asia 
sent to Europe had to be carried by ships and by caravans 
over one of three routes. These routes were by way of the 
Black and Caspian seas and thence overland to India ; 
across Syria to the Persian Gulf and thence by ship to In- 
dia ; and by way of Egypt to the Red sea and thence by ship 
to India. Now it so happened that the Turks, during the 
time that this trade between Europe and Asia was increas- 
ing, were gradually over-running the western part of Asia, 
which included the territory over which these trade routes 
passed. The Turks made it a regular business to capture 
the caravans conveying these goods and to murder those 
in charge. By 1490 A. D. they had almost destroyed the 
great commerce between Asia and Europe. It became 
necessary to give up this trade or to find some new route 
over which the goods might be conveyed. This caused the 
merchants and sailors of Europe to give the question of 
finding a new route serious consideration. Some main- 
tained that if the earth were round, eastern Asia could be 



Conditions Favorable to tlie Discovery of America 39 

reached by sailing west from Europe. Among this num- 
ber was Christopher Columbus. On the third day of 
August, 1492, he sailed from Palos, Spain, with three 
small ships and ninety men to test the correctness of this 
theory. Other men had talked and philosophized about the 
earth being round, but Columbus was the first to test a 
scientific theory by bidding good-by to the known world, 
sailing out into the unknown seas and facing the terrors 
which superstition for ages had planted in the mind of 
man. It was an act as brave as history records. The track- 
less ocean was his highway ; faith in a scientific theory his 
guiding star, 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America) 

The class recitation is of the utmost importance. The nature of a 
pupil's work on a subject will soon be determined by the nature of the 
questions asked him during the recitation. Only questions bringing out 
the more important features of the topic and directly aiding a logical de- 
velopment of the subject should be asked. The preparation of such ques- 
tions requires time and a great deal of hard work. In order to aid the 
teacher, questions for class recitation have been carefully prepared and are 
placed at the end of each general topic. The Roman numerals separating 
these questions refer to the sub-topics with corresponding numerals. The 
pupils will not be able to find material on some of these questions, but the 
general discussions by the teacher, material for most of which is found in 
this manual, will give the pupil the necessary information. When 
reciting the pupil should be required to stand and give a full and complete 
discussion of the question under consideration. This cultivates confidence 
in the pupil and causes him to make ample preparation for the recitation. 

I 

Before the New World was discovered, what were the ideas of the 
people regarding the shape of the earth? How long had these ideas been 
held? Were there any men during this long period who had a correct 
idea of the shape of the earth? How much of the world was known be- 
fore Columbus discovered America? (The pupil should be required to draw 
a map of the world as known before the time of Columbus.) 

II 

Was it because the people were ignorant and uncivilized that they had 



40 INTRODUCTORY 

these false ideas about the world? Tell what you can about the civiliza- 
tions of ancient Greece and Rome. 

Ill 
Why were the Greeks and Romans so little interested in learning 
more about the shape and size of the earth? 

IV 
About the time of Columbus what made the people of Europe anxious 
to learn more about these things? Tell what you can about the growth 
of commerce before the discovery of America. What interfered with the 
trade between Europe and Asia? How did this lead to the discovery of 
America ? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

The school work on most subjects is injured because teachers do not 
have a definite idea as to the nature of the work which boards of educa- 
tion and superintendents desire. The teacher is often afraid that her 
pupils will not be able to pass the final examination for promotion or 
graduation. Teachers have learned by experience that many of the ques- 
tions asked are "catch questions" and are of little value. This frequently 
leads them to prepare pupils for such examinations, which is worse than 
a waste of time. In order to overcome the evil results of this method, 
a few general questions have been prepared on each general topic. The 
object of these questions is to secure a logical development of history and 
civics in the seventh and eighth grades, and to indicate what the nature 
of the completed work on each topic should be. The general questions 
are especially valuable for composition work, and for written reviews or 
tests at the end of the work on each topic or at the end of each month. It 
is strongly urged that the teachers- be given to understand distinctly that 
the examination questions for promotion and graduation will be restricted 
to the general questions contained in this manual. It is also urged that 
the pupils too understand this. This method will secure the concentration 
of the teacher's and pupil's time on the essential features of American his- 
tory, and will also secure a logical development of the subject. If the 
pupils can give a good discussion of each of these general questions, he 
will have secured much value from the time which he has devoted to his- 
tory and civics. 



Discuss the conditions that prevented the discovery of the New 
World before the time of Columbus. Discuss the conditions that led to the 
discovery of America. 



Discoveries and Explorations 41 

DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

I Voyages of the Northmen 

Sailors of Norway, Sweden and Denmark — called the 
Northmen — visited the northwestern shores of North America 
about the year looo A. D. They had settlements in Iceland 
and Greenland, but there is no evidence that they ever made 
a settlement this side of Greenland. Their visits to the main- 
land soon ceased and the land and the voyages were soon for- 
gotten. These voyages had no influence on the real discov- 
ery of America or on its later history. 

II Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 

The Spanish people discovered and explored most of the 
West Indian Islands, Florida, the southwestern part of the 
United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America, 
except Brazil. The principal Spanish explorers whose work 
had direct relation to the United States or to determining the 
extent and shape of the earth were Columbus, Ponce de 
Leon, Balboa, Magellan and De Soto. 

III English Discoveries and Explorations 

The English discovered and explored the eastern part of 
North America from Florida to Canada. The principal Eng- 
lish explorers were the Cabots, Drake, Gilbert and Raleigh. 

IV French Discoveries and Explorations 

The French explored the larger part of the Mississippi 
Valley and the eastern part of Canada, including the region 
of the Great Lakes. The principal French explorers were 
Cartier, Champlain, Marquette, Joliet and La Salle. 

V Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 

The Portuguese made no explorations in North America, 
but Americus Vespucius, while in the employ of the King 
of Portugal, explored the coast of Brazil in South America. 

VI Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 

Holland explored and settled the present state of New 
York. Henry Hudson was the principal explorer. 



42 INTRODUCTORY 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 

(Discoveries and Explorations) 

In connection with the discoveries and explorations of each nation, 

the pupil should be required to trace on the map the routes of each of the 

explorers, showing the part of the New World discovered and explored 

by each nation. 

I 

Who were the Northmen? When did they visit America? What 
part of America did they visit? Why are they not considered the discov- 
erers of the New World? Were their voyages to America important? 

II 

For what was Columbus searching when he made his voyage in 1492? 
Why was he disappointed when he found the New World? What other 
famous Spanish explorers made voyages to America soon after Columbus's 
first voyage? Tell what you can about the first voyage made around the 
world. What part of America did Ponce de Leon explore? Who dis- 
covered the Pacific Ocean? Tell what you can about the explorations of 
De Soto. 

Ill 

Describe the voyages and explorations of the Cabots. Of what value 
were these explorations to England? Give a full description of the voy- 
age of the first Englishman around the world. Describe the attempt of 
Gilbert and Raleigh to establish a colony in the New World. 

IV 

Describe the work of Cartier. Give a full description of the explora- 
tions of Champlain. Tell what you can of the work of Joliet and Mar- 
quette. Give a full description of La Salle's work. 

V- 
Why was the New World called America instead of being named for 
Columbus? 

VI 
Tell what you can of Henry Hudson and his work. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 
Discuss the voyages of the Northmen to America. Discuss the Span- 
ish discoveries and explorations. Discuss the English explorations. Com- 
pare the explorations of the Spanish with those of the English in re- 
spect to location and importance. How do the French explorations com- 
pare in importance with those of the Spanish and English? 



Disposition of Tcrntory in the Nczu Jl'orld 43 

DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD 

It was customary for the captain of a ship or the commander 
of a fleet when he discovered land in the New World, to take 
possession of it in the name of his sovereign. Thus the nations of 
Europe based their claims to territory on the "right of discovery." 
It was on this so-called right that Spain claimed most of the West 
Indies, all of South America except Brazil, Central America, 
Mexico, Florida, and the Southwestern part of the United States ; 
England, the Atlantic Coast from Canada to Florida ; France, all 
the territory drained by the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence and 
their tributaries ; Holland, New York ; and Portugal, Brazil. 
England granted her territory in North America to companies 
and to individuals, and established some crown colonies, which 
were under the direct control of the sovereign. Many of these 
grants made by the English sovereigns were described as extend- 
ing from "sea to sea," that is from the Atlantic to the Pacific. As 
these grants did not always extend due east and west, they fre- 
quently overlapped, and in after years caused considerable trouble 
owing to conflicting claims. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 

(Disposition of Territory in the New World) 

What was the "right of discovery"? What part of the New World 
did Spain claim by this right? What did England claim? What part did 
France claim? What territory in America did other nations claim by the 
right of discovery? How did England dispose of her territory in the New 
World? Why did this cause trouble in later years? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the claims of the various nations to the territory of the New 
World. 



44 INTRODUCTORY 

DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER 

I Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea 

For more than eighty years after the discovery of America, 
Spain was the most powerful nation of the world. She was 
practically mistress of the seas, having a larger navy than 
any other nation. This gave her an immense advantage in 
securing lands and forming settlements in the New World. 
So long as she was stronger on the seas than any other na- 
tion, she could control, to a large extent, the development of 
America. She had secured far more of this new territory than 
any other nation. She was obtaining a large amount of 
money from the mines of Mexico and Peru. All this tended 
to increase her influence in both Europe and Asia. 

II Defeat of the Spanish Armada 

But Spain was soon to lose this proud leadership among 
the nations of the world. England sent an army to assist 
Holland in its attempt to regain independence from Spain. 
Sir Francis Drake and other bold English sea captains cap- 
tured the Spanish treasure ships which were on their way 
from Mexico and Peru. They even sailed into the Spanish 
harbors and destroyed vessels in sight of the people. Drake 
called these acts "singeing the King of Spain's beard,'' 
These acts so enraged the Spanish King, Phillip II, that he 
determined to invade England and annex it to his kingdom. 
In 1588 he collected a fleet of about one hundred and fifty 
ships which carried more than three thousand cannon. This 
fleet was considered so powerful that it was called the In- 
vincible Armada. It was thought by many military men on 
the continent of Europe that England would be conquered. 
The English people were thoroughly aroused, but they were 
not frightened. They were putting forth every effort to col- 
lect a fleet with which to meet the Armada. The English 
navy contained but thirty-eight ships, and most of these were 
small and poorly equipped. But the merchants gave their 
ships freely for the purpose of defense, and a fleet was col- 
lected though it was small as compared with the Spanish fleet. 



Decline of Spanish Pozver 45 

Lord Effingham, Drake, Hawkins and other EngUsh sea cap- 
tains were placed in command. No greater sea fighters than 
some of these men ever lived. The Spanish commanders did 
not compare with them in ability. When the Invincible 
Armada entered the English channel, the English fleet did 
not make a direct attack, but hung on its flanks, destroying 
ship after ship, and in a long running fight drove the Armada 
through the channel into the North Sea. The defeated 
Spaniards could not return to Spain through the English 
Channel, and were forced to sail around the north of Scot- 
land where storms destroyed so many of their ships that not 
more than one-third of them finally reached Spain. This 
crushing defeat of the Invincible Armada had a most im- 
portant bearing on the history of the New World. It marked 
the beginning of Spain's decline on both land and sea. She 
has been growing weaker ever since. It also marks the be- 
ginning of England as a sea power. She soon became mis- 
tress of the seas and has since held this position. All this 
meant that England and not Spain should have most to do in 
shaping the growth of America. From this time on France 
was England's only serious competitor in colonizing North 
America. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 

(Decline of Spanish Power) 

I 

How did the power of Spain compare with that of other nations at 

the time of Cokimbus? How did this help her in America? How did 

Spain's possessions in America help build up her influence in Europe? 

II 
How did the English sea captains injure Spain, and who were the 
most noted of these captains? Why did the King of Spain make war on 
England? What was the Invincible Armada? How did the English fleet 
compare with the Spanish? Which nation had the better commanders? 
How did the English fleet attack the Armada? What was the result of this 
battle? What was the effect of the defeat of the Invincible Armada on 
Spain? What effect did it have on England's sea power? How did this 
affect North America? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 
Discuss the decline of Spanish power and its effect on America. 



46 INTRODUCTORY 

THE AMERICAN INDIAN 

I Origin of Name 

When Columbus discovered the New World he thought it 
a part of Asia. He thought the islands a part of the East 
Indies, and accordingly called the inhabitants Indians. The 
name was afterwards applied to all the native inhabitants of 
America. 

II Classification According to Civilization 

1. Savage Indians 

The savage Indians lived in North America. They oc- 
cupied Alaska, all the Rocky Mountain region except part 
of Arizona and New Mexico, all the territory west of these 
mountains, and the territory in the north between Hudson 
Bay and the Pacific ocean. They were divided into several 
tribes, among the more important being the Apache. 

2. Barbarous Indians 

The barbarous Indians also lived in North America. In 
the United States they occupied all the country 
east of the Rocky Mountains, and in Canada all the country 
south and east of Hudson Bay. The only Indians who had 
any real influence on the history of the United States oc- 
cupied the territory between the Mississippi River and the 
Atlantic Ocean. They are divided into three general di- 
visions or races, Maskoki, Iroquois and Algonquin, Each 
division or race consisted of a number of tribes, each tribe 
of a number of clans, and each clan was composed of a 
number of families. Each race spoke a different language. 
The Maskokis occupied all of the southern states east of 
the Mississippi, except a portion of Tennessee and North 
Carolina. They included a number of tribes, the more im- 
portant ones being the Creeks, Choctaws and Chickasaws. 
The Iroquois race was the strongest one in North America, 
and it had more influence on the history of the United 
States than any other. It occupied New York, Pennsyl- 



The American Indian 47 

vania, the country between Lakes Huron and Erie, the 
northeastern part of Ohio, and the larger portion of North 
CaroHna, and Tennessee. The more important tribes of 
this race were the Five Nations in New York, the Hu- 
rons north of Lake Erie, and the Cherokees of Tennessee. 
The Algonquin race occupied all the country east of the 
Mississippi between Tennessee and North Carolina on the 
south, to Labrador on the north, except that part occupied 
by the Iroquois. The more important tribes of this race 
were the Powhatans of Virginia, the Delawares of Dela- 
ware, and the Mohegans and Narragansetts of New Eng- 
land. 

3. Half-Civilized Indians 

The half-civilized Indians occupied the mountain regions 
from New Mexico to Chili. Among the more important 
races were the Pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, the 
Aztecs of Mexico, and the Incas of Peru. They built cities 
and temples, constructed military roads, raised various 
products, and made fine cloth. 

III Appearance and Manner of Living 

All American Indians were alike in some respects. They 
had black hair, black eyes, a copper-colored skin, high cheek 
bones, and no beard. The barbarous Indians raised some ag- 
ricultural products, but secured most of their food by hunting 
and fishing. They lived in huts and wigwams, and the 
women did most of the hard work. This mode of living re- 
quired a large territory for a small number of people, and 
therefore the number of Indians was always small. 

IV Character 

Although the Indian was kind and hospitable to friends, 
he was by nature cruel, revengeful and treacherous. He was 
brave and would suffer torture without complaint, but in war 
he used all the tactics of a coward, never making a fair open 
fight if he could avoid it. He delighted in torturing prisoners. 



48 INTRODUCTORY 

and in murdering women and children. In domestic life hv 
was lazy and filthy. But with all these faults he was intelli- 
gent, proud and haughty, and could never be enslaved. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(The American Indian) 

I 

Why were the native inhabitants of America called Indians? 

II 
What is the difference between savage and barbarous Indians? Be- 
tween barbarous and half-civilized Indians? Where did the savage In- 
dians live? What part of America did the barbarous Indians inhabit? 
Into what races were the barbarous Indians divided? Where did each 
race live? How did these races differ? Name the more important tribes 
of each race of the barbarous Indians. Where did the half-civilized In- 
dians live? How did they differ from the savage and barbarous Indians? 
What Indians had the most influence on the history of the United States, 
the savage, the barbarous, or the half-civilized? Why was this? Show 
on the map where each of the races of each class of Indians lived. 

Ill 

In what ways were all American Indians alike? Tell all you can about 
the way they lived. Why were there not more Indians in so large a coun- 
try? 

IV 
Describe the nature and habits of the Indian. Why did the white man 
not make slaves of the Indians as he did of the negroes? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Compare the savage, barbarous, and half-civilized Indians in respect 
to civilization and location. Describe the appearance of the American In- 
dian and his manner of living. Discuss the character of the Indian. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

ORIGIN, GROWTH AND POLITICAL HISTORY 

A THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

I Virginia 

1. Origin 

Mc. 29-32; T. 19-21 ; M. 52-57; F. 65-69 

2. Character of Early Settlers 

H. I, 175-177; M. 57-58; F. 69-70 

3. Origin of Representative Government in America 

Mc. 33 ; T. 22 ; M. 59-60 ; F. 72 

4. Virginia Made a Royal Province 

Mc. 34 ; T. 39-40 ; M. 62 ; F. 73-74 

5. Quarrels Betzvcen the People and the Royal Gov- 

ernors 
F. 74-75 

6. Sir William Berkeley 

M. 62^5 ; F. 75-76 

7. Bacon's Rebellion 

T. 40-41 ; M. 65-66; F. 77-78 

II Maryland 

1. Origin 

Mc. 34-36; H. I, 143-146; T. 36-37; M. 103-104; 
F. 124-127 

2. Nature of Government 

Mc. 35; T. 37-38; M. 105; F. 126-127 

3. Religious Disputes 

Mc. 35-36; T. 38-39; M. 105-107; F. 127-128 



50 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

III North and South Carolina 

1. Origin 

Mc. 54-55; T. 42-44; M. 113-115; F. 147-149 

2. Character of Colonists 

T. 44; M. 115; F. 148-150 

3. Government 

T, 42-43; M. 1 1 5-1 16 

IV Georgia 

1. Origin: Character of Settlers 

Mc. 57-58; T. 57; M. 122-124; F- 150-152 

2. Government 

T. 57-58; M. 125-126; F. 152 

B NEW ENGLAND 

I Origin and Growth in Population 

1. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colonies 

(a) Origin of Puritans and Separatists 

Mc. 40; M. 7(^77; F. 86-87 

(b) Persecution of Puritans and Separatists 

Mc. 41; H. I, 180-181 ; T. 24; M. 77; 
F. 87-88 

(c) The Founding of Plymouth Colony 

Mc. 41-46; H. I, 133-136; T. 25-28; M. 
78-82: F. 88-91 

(d) The Founding of Massachusetts Bay Colony 

Mc. 4(^47; H. I, 25-28, 136^140; T. 28-30; 
M. 82-85: F. 91-93 

2. Connecticut and Ne7V Haven 

Mc. 50-51 : T. 35-36; M. 98-99, loi ; F. 100-102 

3. Rhode Island 

Mc. 49-50; T. 33-35; M. 86-88; F. 98-100 



Origin, Groivtli and Political History 51 

4. Nciv Hampshire and Maine 

Mc. 47-48; T. 36; M. 96-98; F. 99-100 

II GOX'ERNMENT IN EaRLY NeW ENGLAND 

1. TIic J'irginian and the Puritan: Union of Church 

and State 
Mc. 48; T. 32-33 ; M. 62-63, 86, 96; F. 95-96 

2. Local Government: The Town Meeting 

M. 81, 96; F. 94 

3. Government Under the Charters 

Mc. 46, 50; T. 31-33 ; M. 85-86; F. 92, 102, 106- 
107 

4. Neiv England Confederacy 

(a) Origin 

Mc. 51-52; T. 64; M. 90; F. 107 

(b) Nature 

Mc. 52; T. 65; M. 90; F. 107 

(c) Defects 

(d) Value 

T. 65; M. 90 

III Relations of the English w ith the Indians 

1. The Indians and the Pilgrims 

H. I, 28-30; T. 62; F. 90-91 ; M. 81-82 

2. The Pequod JVar 

Mc. 71; T. 64; M. 88, 99-100; F. 103-104 

3. The Indians and the Puritans 

Mc. 71; T. 62-63; M. 88; F. 103, no 

4. King Philip's War 

Mc. y2\ T. 65-66; M. 93-94; F. 110-112 



52 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

IV Under the Royal Governors 

1. Annulling of the Charter of Massachusetts Bay 

Colony 

(a) First Attempts 

F. 97 

(b) The Confederacy and the Commonwealth 

T. 70 

(c) Quarrels Between Charles II and Massa- 

chusetts 
M. 95; F. 109 

(d) The Charter Annulled 

.Ale. 53; E. 70-72; AI. 95; F. 112-113 

2. Securing of Royal Charters by Rhode Island and 

Connecticut 
Ale. 52-53; T. 34, 75; AI. 102: F. 109-110 

3. Rule of Sir Edmund Andros 

T. 72-75; M. 95; F. 114-115 

4. Massachusetts and Nezv Hampshire from i68p to 

iy66 
Ale. 53; T. 75; AT 95, 97-98; F. 115-116 

C THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

I New York 

1. Discovery and Settlement 

Ale. 36-39; AI. 67-70; F. 1 29-1 3 1 

2. Character of the Colonists 

Ale. 38, 102 ; H. I, 174 ; T. 48 ; M. 70-72 ; F. 131 

3. Government Under the Dutch 

M. 71-73; F- 131-132 

4. The Colony Under English Control 

Ale. 55; T. 46; M. 74; F. 133-134 



Origin, Groxvth and Political History 53 

5. Under the Royal Governors 
T. 47-48; F. 134-137 

II New Jersey 

1 . Origin 

Mc. 55; T. 49; M. 75; F. 137 

2. Political History 

Mc. 55; T. 49-50; M. 75-76; F. 138 

III Delaware 

Mc. 56-57; T. 56-57; M. 111-113; F. 132. 141 

IV Pennsylvania 

1. Origin 

Mc. 55-56; T. 52-53; M. 118; F. 138-139. f4r 

2. Settlement and Growtli 

T. 54-56; M. 119, 122; F. 140-142 

3. Government 

T. 54-57; M. 120; F. 139 

4. The Province Under Deputy Governors 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

ORIGIN, GROWTH AND POLITICAL HISTORY 
THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

I Virginia 

1. Origin 

In 1606 James I, King of England, granted the land 
from about Cape Fear to the mouth of the Potomac river 
to a company of London merchants called the London 
Company. This company sent out colonists who in 1607 
founded Jamestown, this being the first permanent English 
settlement in America. The colony did not prosper at first 
but was saved from total destruction by the work of John 
Smith, and later put on its feet by the arrival of Lord Dela- 
ware with provisions and about five hundred more set- 
tlers. The colony now became firmly established, and more 
colonists came over every year. By 1620 there were more 
than four thousand ; in 1670 there were more than forty 
thousand; and in 1750 this number had increased to more 
than five hundred thousand. 

2. Character of Early Settlers 

The London Company was organized for the purpose of 
making money, and the earliest settlers came over for the 
same purpose. Very few of them intended to make homes 
and remain here permanently. Some called themselves 
gentlemen; some were criminals from the jails of England ; 
and many were lazy and worthless. These men were gov- 
erned by men appointed by the company, Captain John 
Smith and Sir Thomas Dale being the ablest of these early 
governors. Gradually a better class of men came into the 
colony. They came from the better class in England and 
came for the purpose of making homes for themselves and 
their families. 



Origin, GrozvtJi and Political History 55 

3. Origin of Representative Government in America 

By 16 1 9 the population of Virginia had reached four 
thousand. Most of these settlers were from the middle 
class of England and were accustomed to help make their 
laws and to levy their own taxes. They now asked the 
London Company to allow them to elect a body of men 
to help make the laws. Their request was granted and a 
legislative body called the House of Burgesses was elected 
by the settlers. This was the first law-making body 
elected in America. 

4. Virginia Made a Royal Province 

The London Company came to be very powerful, and 
was controlled by the Puritans who were the political and 
religious enemies of King James L Accordingly he had 
the company's charter annulled, and in 1624 Virginia be- 
came a royal province, whose governor was appointed by 
the king. The people still elected the House of Burgesses 
which helped make the laws. 

5. Quarrels Betzveen the People and the Royal Governors 
During nearly all the time that Virginia was a royal 

province, from 1624 to 1776, there was contention between 
the king and the royal governors on the one side and the 
colonists on the other, as to whether the latter should 
have any voice in law making. The kings and the royal 
governors wished to do away with the power of the House 
of Burgesses, but the people would not permit it. The 
constant friction between the people and the royal govern- 
ors tended to cause the colonists to lose their respect and 
love for England, and this was indirectly one of the causes 
which led to the Revolutionary War. 

6. Sir William Berkeley 

One of the most important of the royal governors of 
Virginia was Sir William Berkeley. His long rule was 



56 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

noted especially for two things : the large immigration of 
English colonists, and his steady opposition to the rights 
of the people. He was, perhaps, the most tyrannical of the 
royal governors. 

7. Bacon's Rebellion 

Governor Berkeley's refusal to protect the people on the 
frontier from Indian raids forced them to defend them- 
selves. Nathaniel Bacon organized a force for this pur- 
pose, and for this w^as declared a rebel by Berkeley. After 
Bacon's death Berkeley regained his power and punished 
Bacon's followers with such severity that the people were 
still more aroused against the oppressive rule of the royal 
governors. 

II Maryland 

1. Origin 

King Charles I granted to George Calvert, Lord Balti- 
more, the territory including the present states of Mary- 
land and Delaware. Lord Baltimore's purpose was to 
provide a home for English Catholics. Two hundred col- 
onists came over in 1634 and founded the town of St. 
Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac. In 1688 the popu- 
lation of the colony had increased to about twenty-five 
thousand, and in 1760 there were more than one hundred 
forty-five thousand people living in Maryland. 

2. Nature of Government 

By the terms of the charter Lord Baltimore and his de- 
scendants had authority over the new colony almost equal 
to that of the English king, but the people had the right to 
assist in making the laws. 

3. Religious Disputes 

Several years after Maryland was first established, large 
numbers of Puritans came into the colony. Later the 



Orifiin, Growth and Political History 5T 

Episcopalians became strong also, and most of the political 
history of the colony is closely related to religious con- 
tentions among the Catholics, Puritans and Episcopalians. 

Ill North and South Carolina 

1. Origin 

In 1663 King Charles II granted the territory between 
Virginia and Florida to eight of his friends among whom 
were Sir William Berkeley, the Duke of Albemarle, the 
Earl of Clarendon, and the Earl of Shaftesbury. Before 
this charter was issued a few English colonists had made 
a settlement on Albemarle Sound and these were soon 
joined by others. The first settlement in South Carolina 
was made on the southern side of Charleston Harbor in 
1670, and ten years later Charleston was founded. Other 
settlements were soon made in both North and South Caro- 
lina, the most important being around Charleston and on 
the Cape Fear River. But during the first thirty-five 
years the growth in population was not rapid. At first 
South Carolina was most populous, the settlements around 
Charleston in 1682 having a population of about three 
thousand. At the close of the seventeenth century the 
population began to increase more rapidly. In 1750 there 
were about ninety thousand people living in North Caro- 
lina, and about eighty thousand in South Carolina. 

2. Character of Colonists 

The colonists of North and South Carolina came from 
various nations and were members of dififerent churches. 
Many came because of religious persecutions at home. 
This mixed population represented strength and deter- 
mination. 

3. Government 

The proprietors to whom the king had granted the two 
colonies belonged to the Church of England, and their 



58 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

efforts to keep all who did not belong to their church from 
taking any part in the government caused constant trouble 
between the governors, whom they appointed, and the 
people. The people insisted on helping make the laws and 
soon secured the right to elect legislative bodies. Because 
of frequent and serious disorders in the government the 
charter was annulled in 1729, and North and South Caro- 
lina each became a royal province. 

IV Georgia 

1. Origin: Character of Settlers 

In 1732 King George II granted to James Oglethorpe 
and twenty other men the territory between South Carolina 
and Florida for the purpose of making homes for men 
who were imprisoned for debt in England. Rich men gave 
money and Parliament voted a sum to aid these debtors 
to make another start in the new colony which was called 
Georgia. Oglethorpe was appointed governor, and in 1733 
he, with thirty-five families, made the first settlement in the 
last English colony to be established in America, by found- 
ing the city of Savannah. Augusta was founded the next 
year and five years later another settlement was made at the 
mouth of the Altamaha. The colony at first was not pros- 
perous. In 1752 there were less than five thousand people 
living in Georgia, but from this time on the population 
increased more rapidly and had reached about fifty thous- 
and in 1766. 

2. Government 

Oglethorpe was appointed governor before leaving Eng- 
land and continued to hold that office until 1743. The 
charter placed the government entirely in the hands of the 
proprietors, and the colonists assisted very little in making 
the laws. After Oglethorpe returned to England the 
affairs of the colony got into very bad shape, and in 1752 
the colony was made a royal province. 



Origin, Grozvth and Political History 59 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 

(The Southern Colonies) 

I 

What was the object of the London Company in sending settlers to 
America? How did the London Company secure land? What territory 
did it secure? Describe the condition of the Jamestown settlement during 
the first year, and the work of John Smith. What was the character of the 
early settlers ? Why did they come to the New World ? Describe the gov- 
ernment of the colony under Thomas Dale, and the condition of the colony 
under his rule. 

What is representative government? Describe its origin in America. 
What is a royal province or colony? How and why did Virginia become 
a royal province? Did this change affect the law-making power of the 
people? Describe in a general way the relations between the royal govern- 
ors and the people. What were the general results of these relations ? 
How long was Sir William Berkeley governor of Virginia? What caused 
his term of office as governor to be divided? For what two things was 
his long rule especially noted? Describe Bacon's Rebellion, discussing its 
cause and results. 

II 

Contrast Virginia and Maryland with regard to the object of settle- 
ment. What is a proprietary colony? Describe the difference between the 
proprietary colony Maryland and the royal province Virginia in regard 
to the selection of governor. Contrast Maryland and Virginia in regard 
to the rights and powers the people had in the government of each colony. 
In what way did religious disputes affect Maryland? Describe the rela- 
tions of Virginia and Maryland. 

Ill 
Describe the origin of North and South Carolina. Compare the grant- 
ing of this territory with the granting of Virginia to the London Com- 
pany. What is the form of government that first existed in the Carolinas 
called? Describe the character of the early settlers. Why did they settle 
in these two colonies? What rights did the people of these two colonies 
have in the government when it was first organized? How did the re- 
ligious beliefs of the people affect these rights? What caused these two 
colonies to become royal provinces? Describe briefly the growth of these 
colonies, giving the names and locations of the larger towns. 

IV 
Describe the origin of Georgia, and give the reason for its settlement. 
What was the character of its early settlers? Describe the growth of this 



60 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



colony. Why was the colony not more prosperous? What powers did' 
the people have in the government? When and why did Georgia become 
a royal province? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the object of the settlement and the character of the settlers 
of each of the southern colonies. Compare these colonies with respect 
to growth in wealth and population. Discuss the origin of representative 
government in America. Compare the southern colonies with respect to 
the rights of the people in the government. Discuss the relations between 
the royal governors and the people. 



Origin, Gronth and Political History 61 

NEW ENGLAND 
I Origin and Growth in Population 

I. Plymontli and Massaclitisetts Bay Colonies 

(a) Origin of Puritans and Separatists 

Because the Pope would not grant him permission to 
divorce his wife and marry Anne Boleyn, one of her 
maids, King Henry VIII of England induced Parlia- 
ment to pass a statute which declared him and not the 
Pope the head of the Catholic Church in England. 
Henry did not wish to make many changes in the Church 
of England, as the Catholic church in England was then 
called, but many of the English people did, and after 
the reform was begun by the king, it could not easily 
be checked. Some withdrew from the church altogether 
and were therefore called Separatists. Some wished to 
remain in the church and reform or purify it, and these, 
therefore, were called Puritans. 

(b) Persecution of Separatists and Puritans 

The Separatists were not permitted to withdraw 
peacefully from the Episcopal or Established church, 
and to establish churches of their own. In many cases 
their property was taken from them, they were sent to 
jail and the leaders were put to death. In 1607 some of 
them escaped from England and settled in Holland. At 
first the Puritans joined in these persecutions, but soon 
they themselves began to be persecuted, and some of 
them joined the Separatists in Holland. 

(c) The Founding of Plymouth Colony 

The Separatists and Puritans who had fled to Holland 
did not wish to remain there, because they were afraid 
that their children would acquire the speech, habits, and 
manners of the Dutch. They wished to find a place 
where they could live and worship in peace and still re- 
main British subjects in British territory. They had 



62 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

heard of the success of the Jamestown colony and de- 
cided to estabHsh a home for themselves and their 
children in the New World. In 1620 about one hundred 
of these Separatists, called Pilgrims, because of their 
wanderings, sailed for America in the ^Mayflower. On 
December 21st they landed on the coast of the present 
state of Massachusetts and founded the colony of Ply- 
mouth. The first winter was a severe one and more 
than half of the colonists died of cold, hunger, and dis- 
ease. However, in the face of all discouragements these 
men and women clung to their new home persistently. 
In 1630 the colony contained only three hundred 
sixty persons, in 1640 about three thousand and in 1670 
it had reached eight thousand. 

(d) The Founding of Massachusetts Bay Colony 

Charles I, who became king in 1625, was strongly op- 
posed to both the religious and political ideas of the 
Puritans. The persecutions of the Puritans became 
worse and worse, and so they also decided to settle in 
the New World. In 1628 some of the leading Puritans 
purchased from the Plymouth or New England Com- 
pany a large tract of land in Massachusetts lying be- 
tween the Charles and the Merrimac Rivers and extend- 
ing from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. Soon after- 
ward a small party of Puritans, led by John Endicott, 
settled at a place called Naumkeag and changed the 
name to Salem. In 1629 the King granted to the men 
who had purchased this tract of land a charter which 
created a corporation called the Governor and Company 
of Massachusetts Bay. During the same year about four 
hundred emigrants crossed to this territory and settled 
at Salem, thus making it larger than Plymouth, which 
had been founded nine years before. During 1630 more 
than one thousand Puritans came to New England and 
settled the towns of Charleston, Boston, Roxburg, Dor- 
chester, Watertown, and New Town (later called Cam- 



Origin, Grozvth and Political History 63 

bridge). By 1635 the number of colonists in the differ- 
ent settlements in Massachusetts amounted to about five 
thousand. 

2. Connecticut and New Haven 

In 1636 the towns of Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield 
were founded by settlers from the Massachusetts Bay 
Colony. These three towns remained a part of Massachu- 
setts until 1639, when they agreed to unite and were then 
known as the colony of Connecticut. In 1638 a wealthy 
congregation of Puritans from England founded New 
Haven, and around this town grew up other towns. These 
towns united and became the colony of New Haven. These 
two colonies kept up a separate existence until 1662, when 
Connecticut attained a royal charter which annexed to her 
the New Haven colony. The united colony prospered and 
its advance in wealth and population was rapid. By the 
time of the Revolution, Connecticut contained about two 
hundred thousand inhabitants. 

3. Rhode Island 

The settlement of Rhode Island was due largely to re- 
ligious and political troubles in Massachusetts. Roger 
Williams, a Puritan minister, was banished from Massa- 
chusetts on account of the political and religious doctrines 
he taught. With his followers he bought land from the 
Indians and made a settlement called Providence. Other 
towns were founded by Anne Hutchinson and Samuel 
Gorton, and later all these united under the title Rhode 
Island. 

4. Nezu Hampshire and Maine 

The earliest settlements in the territory later known as 
New Hampshire were two trading posts at Dover and 
Portsmouth, established in 1636 by John Mason and Per- 



64 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

dinand Gorges. In the territory known as Maine but few 
settlements were made. It was never known as one of the 
colonies except as a part of Massachusetts. 

II Government in Early New England 

I. The Virginian and the Puritan: Union of Church and 
State 
The early settlers of Virginia and a large portion of 
those of the other southern colonies, did not come to the 
New World in order to escape from religious persecution. 
They belonged to the Episcopal or Established Church of 
England and therefore were under the protection of the 
government in religious matters. They came to the New 
World for the sake of adventure and more especially be- 
cause they could make a better living for themselves and 
their children. They were thorough believers in the civil 
and political liberty which Englishmen enjoyed, and they 
and their descendants were as stout in the defense of those 
rights in the struggle with the English kings which ended 
in the Revolution, as were the people of New England. 
The colonists of New England, unlike those of Virginia, 
came to America mainly because of religious persecution 
in England. Many of them were men of wealth and were 
graduates of the English Universities of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge. They planned to and did establish a state based 
on Puritan ideas of religion and government. This does 
not mean that the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colo- 
nies were places where religious liberty existed. The Puri- 
tans persecuted those who preached any doctrine other than 
Puritanism just as severely as they themselves had been 
persecuted in England by Episcopalians. From the very 
first in Massachusetts the Church and State were very 
closely united. The laws provided that no one should 
vote or hold an office of any kind unless he were a mem- 
ber of a Puritan church or congregation. This form of 
government in which the Church and the State are thus 
connected is known as a Theocracv. 



Origin, Grozcth and Political History 65 

2. Local Government: The Tozmi Meeting 

The large immigration into Massachusetts Bay Colony 
called for the immediate organization of a definite form of 
government. As a rule the Puritans came over as congre- 
gations, and each congregation established a small town. 
The freemen of each town, which included the adjacent 
country, met at the meeting house or town hall and elected 
town officers and transacted all the town business. 

3. Government Under tJie Charters 

The charter granted to the Massachusetts Bay Company 
provided for the election of a governor and a deputv gov- 
ernor, and of a committee of eighteen members called as- 
sistants. These officers when assembled constituted what 
was known as the General Court. A little later representa- 
tives were elected from each town. These met in a separate 
legislative body and soon secured more power in the gov- 
ernment than the governor and assistants. Government in 
the other New England colonies was much the same. In 
Rhode Island and Connecticut the Church and State were 
entirely separate. Connecticut differed from the other 
colonies in that she had a written constitution made and 
adopted by the people. 

4. Netv England Confederacy 

(a) Origin 

There were certain conditions in early New England 
which might at any time require the colonies to act to- 
gether. In order to be ready in case of attacks by the 
' Dutch, French or Indians on the frontier, all the New 
England colonies except Rhode Island formed a con- 
federacy. Rhode Island was excluded because of her 
unsettled religious and political conditions. 

(b) Nature 

The confederation was not a real union, but a mere 
agreement to act together on certain general questions. 



66 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

The government was in charge of eight commissioners, 
two elected from each colony. The commissioners had 
entire control of questions arising between the colonies 
and the Indians, or a foreign power. 

(c) Defects 

The commissioners had no power to enforce their acts ; 
the government was simply advisory. This lack of 
power made the Confederacy a w^eak form of union. 
Another weakness was that each of the colonies had the 
same power in the government, while they differed 
widely in population and wealth, Massachusetts having 
more inhabitants and paying more taxes than all the 
others combined. This caused ill feeling and weakened 
the Confederacy. 

(d) Value 

The Confederacy was especially valuable during the 
war with the Indians, 1675-78. It was also of value to 
all the English colonies in America as it served to pre- 
pare men's minds for unity of action a hundred years 
later when union became absolutely necessary in order 
that the colonists might maintain their rights. 

Ill Relations of the English With the Indians 

1. The Indians and the Pilgrims 

Up to about 1635, the colonists of Xew England were 
not troubled by the Indians. The Pilgrims found few In- 
dians in the region in which they settled. With these they 
made a treaty of peace which was faithfully kept both by 
the Indians and the English for more than fifty years. The 
attitude of the Indians further inland was also friendly at 
first. 

2. Pcqiiod War 

The steady advance of the English into the Indian ter- 
ritory roused the dislike and jealousy of the Indians. This 



Origin, Grcnvth and Political History 67 

feeling" soon led to warfare which broke out between the 
Pequods and the settlers. This war resulted in the de- 
struction of the entire tribe, the most powerful tribe in New 
England, and the effect upon the other Indians was such 
that they did not attack the English for nearly forty years. 

3. The Indians and the Puritans 

The dealings of the Puritans with the Indians were, on 
the whole, just and honorable. The Puritans converted 
many of the Indians to Christianity, and tried to educate 
and to civilize them but without much success. The Indian 
and the Puritan did not understand each other. The Indian 
had no conception of what private ownership of land meant, 
and when he saw finally that selling the land to the Eng- 
lish meant giving it up forever and being put out of the 
territory, he became unfriendly. The Indians also re- 
sented having their chiefs called to account for the mis- 
deeds of the members of the tribes. 

4. King Philip's War 

When Massasoit, who had made the early treaty of 
peace with the English, died, and his son Philip became 
chief of the Wampanoags, the growing dislike and distrust 
of the Indians for the English broke out in a war. This 
w^ar began in 1675 and lasted three years with dreadful 
effect upon both the English and the Indians. It was much 
more serious than the Pequod war. Over four thousand 
well armed Indian warriors were united against the Eng- 
lish. A great deal of life and property was lost, and a 
heavy debt w^as incurred by the English. The three tribes 
of Indians engaged were almost completely destroyed. The 
end of this war marks the end of Indian power in New 
England. It was a contest between the people of a weak 
race who owned the soil, and the invaders who belonged to 
a higher and stronger civilization. As is usually the case, 
the more vigorous and higher civilization triumphed. 



68 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

IV Under the Royal Governors 

I. Annulling of the Charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony 

(a) First Attempts 

King Charles I hated the Puritans and seized upon 
complaints made by people who had been banished from 
Massachusetts and others who were jealous of her power, 
as an excuse to attack her government. He demanded 
the charter in 1635 but Massachusetts refused to give it 
up and trouble at home kept him from sending an army 
to compel obedience. 

(b) The Confederacy and the Commonwealth 

In 1642 war broke out in England between Charles I 
and Parliament. In 1643 the New England Confederacy 
was formed, and from that time until the defeat of the 
King's army in 1649, New England was practically inde- 
pendent of outside power. During the time when Crom- 
well and Parliament ruled England without a king. New 
England continued to conduct her affairs about as she 
pleased, with little interference from the home govern- 
ment. 

(c) Quarrels Between Charles II and Massachusetts 
When Charles II came to the throne in 1662 he made 

certain courteous and reasonable demands of Massa- 
chusetts Bay Colony regarding the acknowledging of 
his authority, religious toleration for Episcopalians, and 
extending the right to vote to the members of other 
churches. The Colony refused to comply with these 
demands but war in Europe prevented Charles from 
taking action against it until 1675. 

(d) The Charter Annulled 

The Massachusetts Bay Colony had annexed New 
Hampshire and Maine. The heirs of Mason and Gorges 
to whom this territory had originally been granted, 
claimed that the territory belonged to them. King 



Origin, Growtli and Political History 6'9 

Charles sent over a commissioner to investij^ate affairs 
in the colony, regarding its compliance with his demands, 
the state of feeling among the people, the colony's rights 
to New Hampshire and ]\Iaine, and the enforcing of 
English laws. The commissioner's report was very un- 
favorable to the colony, and in 1684 the charter was 
annulled. 

2. Securing of Royal Charters by Rhode Island and Con- 

necticut 
When Charles II came to the throne, Rhode Island and 
Connecticut each sent a pleasing and flattering address to 
the king and secured charters which provided for a most 
liberal form of government. By this charter New Ha- 
ven was annexed to Connecticut. 

3. Rule of Sir Edmund Andros 

In 1685 Sir Edmund Andros was appointed governor of 
all New England, and of New York and New Jersey. 
One main object of the English government for this ac- 
tion was the union of all the northern colonies, in order 
to be better prepared for any attack of the French from 
Canada. The plan or method of bringing about this union 
could not have been much worse. Andros was directed 
to seize the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, b'.'t 
this he was unable to do. He abolished the legislature of 
Massachusetts and levied taxes and arrested men with- 
out due process of law. While his rule was very despotic 
and arbitrary, it should be remembered that the leaders of 
the Puritan party did all they could to anger him, even 
going so far as to oppose strongly the establishment of an 
Episcopal church at Boston. James II was just as despotic 
with his people in England as his governor was with them 
in New England. In 1688 James was forced to leave 
England, and William, Prince of Orange, became king. 
As soon as the people of Massachusetts heard of this the\ 



70 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

arrested Andros and placed him in jail. Connecticut and 
Rhode Island re-established governments under their char- 
ters, and continued this form of government down to the 
time of the Revolution. New Hampshire from this on had 
a royal governor, but the people elected the lower branch 
of the Legislature, which was by far the more important 
part of the law-making body. 

4. Massachusetts and Neiv Hampshire from i68p to 1/66 

Massachusetts hoped that the new king would give her 
back her beloved charter, but she was disappointed. She 
was granted a new charter which gave her the right to 
elect a legislature or law-making body, and which provided 
• that no taxes could be levied except by this legislature. 
The people of Massachusetts, therefore, could not be taxed 
except by themselves, a right dear to all Englishmen, and 
one which the people of all the colonies were determined 
to have. The charter also provided that no man should be 
denied the right to vote or to take part in the government 
because of his religious ideas. Under the old charter the 
governor was elected by the people ; but under the new 
charter he was appointed by the king. All laws passed 
by the legislature had to be sent to the king for his ap- 
proval before they became effective. This was not so libe- 
ral a government as that enjoyed by the people of Rhode 
Island and Connecticut, but the people of Massachusetts 
had to live under it until the Revolution, when all the 
colonies became independent of England. As the new 
charter annexed the colony of Plymouth and the territory 
of Maine to the Massachusetts Bay Colony the people of 
these two places also lived under the government of this 
charter. From 1689 to 1776 Massachusetts and New 
Hampshire were governed by royal governors appointed 
by the English kings, and by a legislature elected by the 
people. During the greater part of this time the governors 
and the people were quarreling about taxes and laws. All 



Origin, Grozi'th and Political History 71 

these quarrels caused the people to care less and less for 
the mother country and served to prepare them for com- 
plete separation from England. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(New England) 

I 

Why did King Henry VIII have himself declared the head of the 
Catholic Church in England? Did he wish to destroy or make many 
changes in the doctrines of the church? How did the Episcopal Church 
come to be established? Who were the Puritans? How did the Separ- 
atists differ from the Puritans? How were the Puritans and Separatists 
treated? Why did the Separatists go to Holland? Why did they wish 
to leave Holland and go to America? Why were they called Pilgrims? 
Did they intend to settle in INIassachusetts ? Describe the first year of the 
life of the Plymouth colony. What caused the Puritans to wish to leave 
England and come to America? How did the Puritans obtain land in 
America? What settlements were made by the Puritans in Massachusetts? 
Compare the growth 6i the Plymouth colony with that of the Massachu- 
setts Bay Colony. Describe the origin and growth of the Connecticut 
colony. Describe the origin and growth of the New Haven colony. How 
did the Connecticut and New Haven colonies become united? What 
caused the settlement of Rhode Island? Tell what you can about Roger 
Williams and Anne Hutchinson. What was the character of the first set- 
tlements in New Hampshire and Maine? 

II 
Compare the object of the settlers of New England with that of the 
settlers of Virginia in coming to America. Did the Puritans establish 
religious liberty in their colonies? What kind of government did they 
establish? How was the life and government of the people affected by the 
fact that they came over in congregations, each congregation settling to- 
gether? Who voted at the town meetings? Describe the government 
provided by tfie charters. Tell what you can about the beginning of rep- 
resentative government in New England. Compare this with the be- 
ginning of representative government in Virginia. Was it necessary in all 
the New England colonies that a man be a church member before he could 
vote? How did Connecticut differ from all the other New England colo- 
nies in her government? Who controlled the law-making department of 
government in each of the New England colonies? What caused the for- 
mation of the New England Confederacy? Why was Rhode Island not 
admitted to this Confederacy? Describe the organization of the Confed- 
eracy. Why was it not a strong union? Of what value was the Con- 
federacy? 



72 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

III 

Why did the Indians not trouble the Pilgrims? Why were the In- 
dians friendly to the English at first, and later unfriendly? Tell what you 
can about the Pequod war. How did the Puritans treat the Indians? Why 
were the Indians and the Puritans not able to get along well together? 
Tell what you can about King Philip's war. Compare this war with the 
Pequod war. What effect did King Philip's war have on the relations of 
the people of New England with the Indians? 

IV 
Why did King Charles I dislike the Puritans? For what causes had 
the Puritans banished people from ^Massachusetts? Describe briefly the 
overthrow of Charles I. How was New England treated by the English 
government while Cromwell and Parliament ruled? When Charles II 
became king, what demands did he make of the Massachusetts Bay 
Colony? Were these demands reasonable? Explain in full why the char- 
ter of this colony was annulled. Describe the rule of Governor Andros. 
Why did the king unite New England. New York and New Jersey under 
one governor? Describe the conditions which led to the overthrow of 
Andros. What were the most important provisions of the new charter 
granted to Massachusetts? How did the governments of Rhode Island 
and Connecticut differ from those of the other New England colonies? 
Describe in a general way the relations between the royal governors and 
the people. What effect did the quarrels between the royal governors and 
the people have on the relations of the colonies to England? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the religious conditions in England leading to the settlement 
of New England. Compare New England colonies with the southern 
colonies in respect to the object of their settlement and character of their 
settlers. Discuss the Puritan ideas of government as shown in the gov- 
ernment established in New England. Compare the New England and 
southern colonies in respect to the power of the people in the govern- 
ment. Discuss the relations between the Indians and the settlers of New 
England. Discuss the annulling of the charter of the Massachusetts Bay 
Colony. Compare the relations between the people and the royal governors 
in New England with those between the people and the royal governors in 
the southern colonies. 



Origin, Grozvtii and Political History 73 

THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

New York 

1. Discovery and Settlement 

In 1609, Henry Hudson, an English sailor employed by 
a Dutch commercial company, discovered the river which 
now bears his name, and explored the country bordering it. 
The Dutch called the territory New Netherlands and im- 
mediately began to send settlers over to secure the valuable 
fur trade of the region. The first settlement was made on 
Manhattan Island in 16 14 and other towns soon sprang up 
along the Hudson, on Long Island, and on Manhat- 
tan Island. In 1655 the territory now known as New 
Jersey and Delaware was taken by the Dutch and made 
part of their colony. 

2. Character of the Colonists 

While the territory was claimed and held by the Dutch, 
the settlers came from all parts of Europe. These first 
settlers came simply for trading, not for the purpose of 
making homes. In order to encourage permanent settlers, 
valuable grants of land along the Hudson were given to 
men bringing to New Netherlands fifty permanent set- 
tlers. These grants were called patroonships, and the 
men receiving them, patroons. This brought in many 
settlers, but more men of the better class came in later 
when cheap ownership of small holdings of land was 
promised. 

3. Government Under the Dutch 

While this colony was under the Dutch control the 
people had very little voice in the government. The gov- 
ernor was appointed by the company, and although he had 
a council to advise him, he really had all the power in his 
own hands. Peter Stuvvesant stands out as the ablest of 



74 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

all the Dutch governors. His rule was arbitrary and he 
paid little attention to the rights of the people, but the 
wealth and population of the colony more than doubled 
under his administration. 

4. The Colony Under English Control 

New Netherlands by its position divided the English 
colonies into two parts, and for that reason, as well as on 
account of its commercial value, the English desired its 
possession. So in 1664 the English king, Charles II, sent 
over a small fleet and took possession of the entire colony. 
In 1673 the Dutch again obtained control of this terri- 
tory, but only for one year. The English king granted this 
province to James, Duke of York and Albany, and the 
name of the colony was changed to New York. The Duke 
granted the southern part of the territory to two English- 
men as a separate province under the name of New Jersey. 

5. Under the Royal Governors 

When the province was given to the Duke of York, 
a charter was given the people, which was based on the 
New England charters, but did not give the people so 
many rights in the government. In 1685 James became 
King of England and New York thus became a royal 
province. From this time the government was carried 
on along the same lines as the other royal colonies, that 
is, with a governor and council appointed by the king and 
an assembly elected by the people. As in New England, 
there was a great deal of trouble between the legislature 
and the governor. The people never gained as much power 
in law-making as they did in New England or the southern 
colonies. 

II New Jersey 
I. Origin 

The real history of this colony begins in 1664 when the 
Duke of York granted the territorv between New York 



Origin, Groivtii and Political History 75 

harbor and Delaware Bay to Lord Berkeley and Sir 
George Carteret, giving it the name New Jersey. Settlers 
came in from New York, New England and Europe, and 
the province grew steadily in population and wealth. 

2. Political History 

When the proprietors received the grant of New Jersey 
they established a liberal form of government with a gov- 
ernor and council appointed by themselves, and an as- 
sembly elected by the freemen. Owing to some trouble in 
managing the colony, Lord Berkeley sold his share to the 
Quakers, and the province was divided into East and West 
Jersey. The Quakers organized a more liberal govern- 
ment in the western part, while East Jersey was organized 
on the same lines as the whole province had been. In 1682 
William Penn and some associates became the proprietors 
of East Jersey. Continual trouble between the province 
and the proprietors led the proprietors to give up their 
rights in 1702, and the two provinces were united and 
placed directly under control of the Crown. 

III Delaware 

The first colony of any importance in this territory was 
established by Sweden in 1638. Thirteen years later this 
territory was taken by the Dutch, and, with New Jersey, 
made a part of New Netherlands. When the English con- 
quered the Dutch, Delaware remained a part of New York 
until 1682 when William Penn obtained a grant to it as a 
part of Pennsylvania. In 1702 Delaware organized a sep- 
arate legislature and became a separate province, but re- 
mained under the governor of Pennsylvania. 

IV Pennsylvania 
I. Origin 

In 1681 Charles II granted a tract of land extending 
from the Delaware river westward and containing forty 



76 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

thousand square miles, to William Penn, in payment of 
a debt owed by the Crown to his father. Penn's plan was 
to found a colony for the Quakers who were persecuted 
in England. As his colony had no sea coast, Penn bought 
the rights to Delaware and governed it as part of Pennsyl- 
vania. In 1702 Delaware was made a separate colony with 
a separate legislature, though it remained under the same 
governor as Pennsylvania. 

2. Settlement and Groivtli 

Penn put his plan before the people promising just gov- 
ernment, religious freedom, protection of personal rights 
and cheap land. As a result, large numbers of Quakers 
from England, and settlers from all parts of Europe, es- 
pecially Germany, came to this new territory at once. The 
growth of this colony was more rapid than that of any 
other American colony. 

3. Government 

When Charles II granted Pennsylvajiia to William 
Penn he placed some restrictions on his government, the 
most important being that all laws must be approved by 
the king, and that the king might tax the people of the 
colony directly. Penn established a very democratic form 
of government in the colony, the law-making power being 
given to a legislature of two houses, both of whose mem- 
bers were elected by the people. Penn acted as governor, 
but did not retain much power. Later he took away some 
of the power given the people. 

4. Province Under Deputy Governors 

When Penn left the colony in 1701 he made a new con- 
stitution by which the Assembly elected by the people had 
the power to make all the laws, and the governor and 
council appointed by the proprietor were merely advisory. 



Origin, Grozvth and Political History 11 

The colony was left in charge of a deputy governor and 
secretary, and the government was carried on in this way 
until the Revolution. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 

(The Middle Colonies) 

I 

For what object did settlers first come to New York? Compare the 
settlement of New York with the settlement of Virginia and of Massa- 
chusetts. Why was New York at first called New Netherlands? Describe 
the character of the early settlers. Describe the method of colonizing this 
territory. Describe the government of New York by the Dutch. Tell 
what you can of the work of Peter Stuyvesant. How did New Nether- 
lands come under English control ? What conditions caused New York 
to become a royal province? Compare the government of New York under 
the English with that under the Dutch. How did the people get along 
with the royal governors? 

II 

Describe the origin of New Jersey. What kind of government was 
established in this colony by the proprietors? Why was the colony di- 
vided? Was the settlement of the Quakers in East Jersey important? 
Why was New Jersey made a royal province? 

Ill 

Tell what you can of the origin and settlement of Delaware. 

IV 

Tell all you can about William Penn and give his reasons for found- 
ing a colony in America. Describe the settlement of Pennsylvania. Why 
did Penn buy the rights to Delaware? What was the Mason and Di.xon 
line? What was the character of the settlers of Pennsylvania? How did 
the growth of Pennsylvania compare with that of the other colonies? 
Why was this? Describe the government established by Penn. Compare 
the rights of the people in the government of this colony with their rights 
in the government of the other colonies. Describe the government of the 
province under the deputy-governors. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 
Discuss the causes leading to the settlement of each of the middle 
colonies and compare them with the causes of the settlement of New 
England and the southern colonies. Compare each of the middle colonies 
with the New England and southern colonies in respect to government, 
bringing out the powers of the people in the government of each. Com- 
pare the middle with the southern and New England colonies in respect 
to the character of their settlers. Compare the growth of the middle 
colonies with the growth of the New England and the southern colonies. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA 

I French Explorations and Settlements 

Mc. 60-65; M. 28, 126-130; F. 50-54. 155-159 

II Contrast of French and English Settlements 

M. 131; T. 89-90 

III Relations of the French with the Indians 

1. Value of Indian Friendship 

Mc. 70-71 ; F. 54 

2. Enmity of the Iroquois 

Mc. 72-73 ; F. 54-55 

IV Early Conflict Between French and English 

1. Conditions Making ConMct Inez'itable 

Mc 76; F. 159-160 

2. Conditions Leading to English Success 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

3. King IVilliam's, Queen Anne's and King George's 

Wars, 168^-1/48 
Mc 76-81 ; T. 85-87; M. 131-134: F. 161-168 

V The French and Indian War, 1754- 1763 

I. Beginnings 

(a) Washington's First and Only Surrender, 1754 

Mc. 81-86; T. 90-92: M. 135-138; F. 168- 
169 

(b) Braddock's Defeat, 1755 

Mc. 87-88; H. II. 138-141 ; T. 94-95; M. 
138-139; F. 170 

(c) Other EngHsh Reverses, 1754-1758 

Mc.88;T. 96; F. 172 



* llie French in North America 79 

TJie War Under Pitt's Direction, ly^S-i/ds 

(a) Pitt's Able and Vigorous War Policy 

Mc. 89; T. 97; M. 139; F. 170-172 

(b) English Victories, 1758-1760 

Mc. 89-90; H. II. 146-150; T. 97-100; M. 
139-140; F. 173-174 

Treaty of Peace: Results of the War 

Mc. 90-91 ; T. loo-ioi ; M. 141-142; F. 174-175 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA 

I French Explorations and Settlements 

The French explored the Mississippi Valley and the ter- 
ritory north of the Great Lakes and the English colonies. 
Cartier and Champlain were the first important explorers of 
the country along the St. Lawrence. Champlain established 
several permanent settlements, among them being Port 
Royal, Quebec and Montreal. From these early settlements 
made between 1603 and 161 2, later explorers pushed on 
through the region of the Great Lakes and discovered and 
explored the Mississippi river and valley. Joliet, Marquette 
and La Salle were the foremost explorers of the Mississippi 
river and its tributaries, La Salle giving the name Louisiana 
to this territory. Thus in 1682 the French claims in America 
included all the territory from the Appalachian to the Rock> 
^Mountains, the region of the Great Lakes, and the country 
north of the English colonies, including Nova Scotia and 
Newfoundland. 

II Contrast of French and English Settlements 

The difference between the French and the English colo- 
nies was due largely to the difference in the purpose and mauT 
ner of settlement. The English came to make homes, while 
the French came for the money to be gained from the fisheries 
and the fur trade ; to convert the Indians ; and to gain more 
territory for France. Consequently the English built up 
strong and prosperous farming communities along the coast, 
while the French spread their claims over as much territory 
as possible, but made few permanent settlements, most of 
those made being mere military trading posts. Thus while 
the territory occupied by the English colonies was small as 
compared with that claimed by France, the population of the 



The French in North America 81 

English colonies by 1750 had reached almost two millions 
while the total French population in North America was less 
than one hundred thousand. 

III Relations of the French with the Indians 

1. Value of Indian Friendship 

As the French were very anxious to secure the fur 
trade, and as the Indians controlled most of this, it was 
necessary for the French to be on friendly terms with them. 
The French were very successful in winning this friend- 
ship, and this was the real source of their power. Except 
in the case of the Iroquois the French were much more 
successful in dealing with the Indians than were the 
English. 

2. EiTmity of the Iroquois 

By aiding the Algonquins in a battle against another 
tribe, the French early gained the bitter hatred of the Iro- 
quois or Five Nations, the most powerful Indian confede- 
racy in North America. As the Iroquois occupied the 
territory between the St. Lawrence country and the Eng- 
lish colonies, the French were compelled to move westward 
in their advance, and were kept from occupying New York, 
and from coming in contact with the English. This gave 
the English time to develop and gather strength for the 
coming contest. 

IV Early Conflict Between French and English 

I. Conditions Making Conflict Inevitable 

When the English colonists had settled up most of the 
territory east of the Appalachian Mountains it was but 
natural that they should pass over these mountains into 
the Ohio Valley in search of new farming lands. When 
they did this it meant that the two nations must fight. If 
the English occupied this valley the French in Canada 



82 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

would be separated from those in the southern part of the 
Mississippi valley, and thus the French plans for a great 
Empire in America would be overthrown. 

2. Conditions Leading to English Success 

The permanent character of the English colonies, and 
the greater size of the English population made it impos- 
sible for the French to check the steady advance of the 
English. 

3. King William's, Queen Anne's and King George's Wars, 

1689-1748 

These three wars were caused by trouble between 
France and England in Europe. It was but natural that 
the conflict should extend to the French and English colo- 
nies in America. But the results of these wars in America 
were not important. In each war the French and their 
Indian allies destroyed some English settlements on the 
frontier, and massacred the settlers. All that the English 
in America gained was Nova Scotia and some military 
training. During King George's War they captured 
Louisburg, an important military post, but by the treaty 
at the close of the war it was returned to France. The 
French secured no new territory. 

V The French and Indian War, 1754-1763 

The fourth and last war between the French and English 
in the New World began, not in Europe, as had the other 
three, but in America. The first battle of this war was fought 
in 1754. This was two years before war was formally de- 
clared between France and England, and during this time 
several battles had been fought. In 1756 the war between 
the French and EngHsh in America became a part of one of 
the greatest wars of modern times. England and Frederick 
the Great of Prussia united against France, Spain, Austria, 
and Russia. In Europe this war was known as the Seven 



'flic frciicli in North America 83 

Years' War. and lasted from 1756 to 1763. In America it 
was known as the French and Indian War and lasted from 
1754 to 1763. In a most heroic struggle, Frederick the Great, 
aided by England, was a match for his combined enemies in 
Europe and by the treaty signed in 1763 by all the nations 
engaged in the war, Prussia did not lose a foot of territory. 
The war was most disastrous to France. The treaty which 
closed it marked the temporary end of French Colonial Em- 
pire, but France has since secured some valuable colonial 
possessions. She lost all her possessions in North America, 
and nearly all of those in India. England secured the greater 
part of the territor}- that France lost, and gained more by the 
the war than any other nation. 

I. Beginnings 

(a) Washington's First and Only Surrender, 1754 

The passing of English settlers over into the Ohio 
valley caused the French to construct a series of forts 
from Lake Erie to the site of the present city of Pitts- 
burg. A small force under command of Washington 
was sent against Fort Duquesne, the last of these forts 
built, but was defeated by a much larger force of the 
French and their Indian allies, and was forced to sur- 
render. This was Washington's first and only surrender. 

(b) Braddock's Defeat, 1755 

After Washington's defeat England sent over a thou- 
sand soldiers under General Braddock to aid the colo- 
nies. This army was increased by the colonies, and with 
a force of about twenty-two hundred, Braddock marched 
from Virginia against Fort Duquesne. He was sur- 
prised on the march by a force of French and Indians 
from the fort, and defeated with great loss. This de- 
feat was largely due to Braddock's ignorance of frontier 
methods of fisfhtinsf. 



84 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

(c) Other English Reverses, 1754- 1758 

Expeditions sent by the colonies against Niagara, 
Crown Point and Ticonderoga were unsuccessful, and 
during the next two years the important forts of Oswego 
and William Henry were captured by the French. 

2. TJic War Under Pitt's Direction, i/ 38-1 /6s 

( a ) Pitt's Able and Vigorous War Policy 

William Pitt became Prime Minister of England in 
1757, with full control of military operations. He was 
the greatest war minister England has ever had. He at 
once reorganized the English army, removing the incom- 
petent officers and replacing them with men of ability. 
He raised a force of fifty thousand soldiers for the war 
in America, half of which was furnished by England and 
half by the colonies, and placed it under competent gen- 
erals. 

(b) EngHsh Victories, 1 758-1 760 

From the time Pitt came into power the English were 
almost uniformly successful. Three of the most import- 
ant French forts, Duquesne, Frontenac, and Louisburg, 
were captured by the English in 1758. The capture of 
Quebec and of Montreal in 1759 and 1760, completed the 
overthrow of the French in America. 

3, Treaty of Peace: Results of the War 

Although the last battle of the French and Indian War 
was in 1760, the treaty of peace was not signed until the 
end of the Seven Years' War in 1763. Among other things, 
this treaty gave to England all the territory east of the 
Mississippi except the island on which New Orleans stands. 
To Spain was given this island and all the territory west 
of the great river. France retained nothing in North 
America except two small islands in the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence. The results of the war made it plain that the 



TJie French in North America 85 

English language and English institutions should be su- 
preme in North America. The English colonies could now 
develop in peace so far as any foreign nation was con- 
cerned. The war brought about conditions which helped 
to bring on the Revolution, and the training which the 
colonists received in this contest with the French prepared 
them for the conflict with the Mother country. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(The French in North America) 

I 

Tell what you can of the explorations and settlements made by Car- 
tier and Cliamplain. Why is Champlain called the "Father of New 
France"? What part of the continent was explored by Joliet and INIar- 
quette? Discuss La Salle's explorations. Draw a map showing the routes 
of these explorers and the territory claimed by France by virtue of these 
explorations. Describe the manner in which the explorers took possession 
of the country for France. 

II 

How did the French and English colonies differ in the purpose of 
their settlements? How did this affect the character of the settlements 
of the two nations? Compare the English and French colonies in respect 
to location, extent, and size of population. What caused the great differ- 
ence in population? 

Ill 

Why did the French wish to be friendly with the Indians ? How did 
they gain the friendship of the Indians? Why were the English less de- 
pendent on the Indians than were the French? How did the French make 
enemies of the Iroquois? How did this affect the growth of the French 
colonies? LIow did the friendship of the Iroquois for the English affect 
the growth of the English colonies? 

IV 

How did the French occupy the territory which they claimed? Why 
were the English and the French colonists sure to come into conflict in 
North America? Why was it natural that the English should pass over 
the Alleghany mountains into the Ohio valley? Why did the French 
wish to prevent this ? Why were the French unable to check the westward 
advance of the English? Tell what you can about King William's War. 
About Queen Anne's War. About King George's War. 



86 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

V 

Tell what you can of the Seven Years' War in Europe. How was the 
French and Indian War in America connected with the Seven Years' War 
in Europe? Why did the French build a series of forts from Lake Erie 
to the site of the present city of Pittsburg? Why did the English object to 
this? Tell all you can about Washington's expedition against Fort Du- 
quesne. What was the effect of Washington's defeat on the Indians in the 
Ohio valley? What was its effect on the English? Why were the English 
colonists so slow in preparing for war? Tell what you can of Braddock's 
expedition, discussing the causes of its defeat. Describe the English ex- 
peditions against Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. What was the 
effect of these defeats on the English? Tell what you can of Montcalm 
and his work. Tell all you can of William Pitt and his war policy. De- 
scribe the taking of Louisburg. How did the capture of Louisburg aid 
the English? Describe fully the capture of Quebec. Compare the French 
General Montcalm with the English general Wolf in character, ability and 
courage. Draw a map showing all the changes in territory in America 
made by this war. What was the effect of the war on the history of 
America? What was the direct effect on the English colonists? 

Questions for Compositions and Examin.a.tions 

Compare the French and English settlements in location, extent, pur- 
pose of settlement, character, and population. Discuss the relations of the 
French with the Indians. Compare the attitude of the French tovi^ard the 
Indians with that of the English. Discuss the enmity of the Iroquois to 
the French and its effect on colonial history. Describe the conditions 
which made war between the French and English inevitable. Discuss the 
conditions leading to English success in this struggle. Discuss in a general 
way King William's, Queen Anne's, and King George's Wars. Discuss 
the Seven Years' War in Europe and its connection with the French and 
Indian War in America. Discuss the scope of the French and Indian 
War. Describe the work of Washington in this war. Discuss the work 
of Pitt. Discuss the results of the war, including territorial changes and 
political effects. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

It is very important that the subject of institutional Hfe in the 
Colonies receive careful treatment. Unfortunately the text-books 
contain very little material on this subject. It is necessary, there- 
fore, that the teacher in a number of talks discuss the entire sub- 
ject very carefully, and have the pupils take notes. The discus- 
sions which follow have been made quite full in order to furnish 
material for these discussions. 

A INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 

I Commercial Industries 

1. The Southern Colonics 

(a) Products 

Mc. 104; H. I, 63-64, 156-159; T. 40-44; 
M. 58-59, 116-117, 124; F. 70-71, 129, 
149-150 

(b) Plantations 

1. Growth 

Mc. 104: F. 71 

2. Relation to Growth of Cities 

Mc. 104; F. 76 

3. Relation to Growth of Slavery 

Mc. 105 : M. 61 ; F. 71 

(c) Relation of Slavery to Industrial Conditions 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 
H. I, 158-159 

2. Netv England 
(a) Occupations 

I. Agriculture 

Mc. 101-102; M. 86; F. 106 



88 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

2. Manufactures 

Mc. 98-99 ; T. 80-81 ; M. 97 

3. Fisheries 

Mc. loi; M. 86 

4. Commerce 

Mc. 102; H. I, 139-140; H. II, 50-51, 
59-60; M. 86; F. 95 

(b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery 
(To be discussed by the teacher) 
F. 313 

3. The Middle Colonies 

(a) Occupations 

1. Agriculture 

Mc. 103; H. I, 147, 159-161 

2. Manufactures 

Mc. 103 ; M. 76 

3. Commerce 

Mc. 103 ; H. II, 37-39 

(b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

II Professional Life 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

1. The Ministry 

T. 32-33; M. 149; F. 106 

2. Medicine 

3. Lazv 

B SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

Mc. 93-94, 100; H. I, 67-70, t6o: T. 83-84; M. 147-148 



lustittitioual Life in the Colonies 8i) 

I The Southern Colonies 

1. Classes of Society 

(a) The Negro Slave 

Mc. 105; H. I, 157-159; H. II, 34-35: ^t- 
61 

(b) Indented Servants 

Mc. 97-98, 105; H. I, 175; T. 42; M. 6-- 
62; F. 71-72 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

H. I, 149-152; M. 146-147 

2. Dress and Amusements 

H. I, 152, 224-229; H. II, 19-26; T. 81 ; M. 147- 
148 

II New England 

1. Classes of Society 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

(a) Slaves 

(b) Indented Servants 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

2. Social Distinctions 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

3. Dress and Anmsenients 

H. I, 152-155, 180-182, 192-194; H. II, 26-27, 

39-42, 211-212; T. 81 

III The Middle Colonies 

I. Classes of Society 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

(a) Slaves 

(b) Indented Servants 

H. I, 174, 184, 188-191 ; H. II, 52-55 



90 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. 

(c) The Middle Class 

(d) The Upper Class 

Mc. 38; T. 105; M. 70-71; F. 131 

2. Dress and Amusements 
H. II, 17-19, 184, 187 

C GOVERNMENT 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

I Local Government 

1. The County 

2. The Toziiiship 

M. 81 ; F. 94 

3. The Parish 

F. 94 

II Colonial and State Government 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

1. State Government 

(a) Legislative Department 

(b) Executive Department 

(c) Judicial Department 

2. Colonial Government — Departments 

(a) Legislative Department 

Mc. 106, 33, 35, 46, 57 ; H. II, 61 ; T. 104, 
22, 31-32, 43; M. 60, 85-86, 105; F. 
72, 106-107, 134, 140 

(b) Executive Department 

Mc. 106-107: H. II, 61; T. 31; M. 64-66, 
76, 95, 105, 120; F. 75-78, 114-116, 
135-136 

(c) Judicial Department 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 91 

3. Colonial Government — Classes 

(a) Charter Government 

Mc. 105 ; T. 104-105 

(b) Proprietary Government 

jMc. 105-106 ;T. 104; F. 126 

(c) Royal Government 

Mc. 106-107 ; T. 105 

III National Government 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

IV Relation of Colonial Government to Present State 

Government 
(To be discussed by the teacher) 

D RELIGION: GROWTH OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY 

I Religious Liberty at the Present Time 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

II Religious Persecution in Europe 

Mc. 36. 41, 47, 49; M. 76-77; F. 87 

III Religious Persecution in the Colonies 

Mc. 36, 48 : T. 75-78 ; M. 62, 83. 86-88, 91-93, 94, T04- 
107: F. 93, 98-99, 107-108, 128 

IV Churches Have Not Been Responsible for Religious 

Persecution 
(To be discussed by the teacher) 

V Religious Liberty in the United States: Caltses of 

Its Growth 
(To be discussed by the teacher) 

E EDUCATION 

I Comparison of Colonial Schools with Those of the 
Present Time 
(To be discussed by the teacher) 



92 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

II Condition of Schools in England 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

III The Southern Colonies 

H. I, 216-217, 224-226; T. 82; M. 62; F. 75 

IV New England 

H. I, 109-111, 206-210, 214-216, 232-233; T. 81-83; 
M. 88-89, 149; F. 96 

V The Middle Colonies 

H. I, 218-224; M. 149-150 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 
The Five Institutions 

There exist among the people of every nation, or state, or city, 
or community, five organizations or institutions. They are Busi- 
ness, or Industrial Life ; Society, or Social Life ; the State, or 
Government; the Church, or Religion; and the School, or Edu- 
cation. These five institutions, in some form or another, may 
always be found among savages as well as among civilized peoples. 
All that any community, or the individuals of any community, 
can think or do, must be thought or done along one or more of 
these lines. They include the entire life and work of every person 
and community. Among civilized people, these five institutions 
are distinctly and plainly marked, and every person bears some 
relation to each of them. The nature of his work in relation to 
one or more of these institutions determines to what extent he is 
useful or harmful to the community, state, or nation in which he 
lives. The active, useful, intelligent citizen follows some business 
or occupation successfully ; he contributes to the happiness and 
social life of the people in whose society he lives ; he takes an active 
interest in some organization or church that advocates his views 
on religion ; and he interests himself in the educational affairs of 
his community. What is true of an individual in this respect, is 
true also of a nation. It therefore becomes very important i:^ 
studying the history of a nation, to study carefully its institutional 
life which consists of these five institutions. A nation should be 
judged not so much by the battles which it has fought, or by the 
territory which it owns, as by the condition of its institutions. 
So far we have been studying the colonies mainly as related to 
their political history, or the institution of government, which 
includes among other things, the wars fought and the territory 
secured. While it is of importance to learn about the institution 
of government, or the ])olitical history of a nation, it is of even 
more importance to learn about the other four institutions which 



94 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

make up the business, the social, the rehgious, ai.d the educational 
Hfe of the people. We shall now study the condition of these four 
institutions in the colonies, and review the institution of gov- 
ernment. 

Effect of Topography, Climate, and Soil on the History 
OF THE United States 

In the study of the growth and development of the nation the 
difference in topography, climate and soil of the different sections 
deserves the most careful consideration. It was the fundamental 
cause of the American Civil War. This difference determined 
to a certain extent that the South should be, until after the Civil 
War, an almost strictly agricultural country ; that the land should 
be divided into large plantations ; that almost the entire time and 
energy of the southern people should be devoted to raising tobacco, 
rice, indigo and cotton ; and that the labor of the South should be 
performed by negro slaves. It also determined to a certain extent 
that the people of the northern colonies should devote a large part 
of their time and energy to commerce and manufacturing ; that 
the agricultural land should be divided into a large number of 
small farms ; that many different kinds of agricultural products 
should be raised ; and that the labor of the North should be per- 
formed by freemen instead of by slaves. All these facts are of 
importance and are fundamental, and should be borne in mind con- 
stantly. They became plainer and plainer as the history of the 
colonies and nation developed. This difference between the 
topography, climate and soil of the North and South produced 
different industrial, social, and political conditions, which became 
more and more unlike and drifted farther and farther apart until 
brought together, welded, and made one by the American Civil 
War. 

Comparison of the Topography, Cliimate and Soil of the 
Southern, Middle and New England Colonies 

The topography, climate and soil of the southern colonies and 
of New England were quite different. By far the largest part 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 95 

of the country in the southern colonies and in all the southern 
states that border on the Gulf of Mexico is level, in fact, almost 
flat. This country is drained by broad rivers which flow into the 
sea or into the Gulf. The soil is naturally very rich ; the rainfall 
is abundant ; the climate in the summer time is very hot and with 
the exception of Maryland and the northern part of Virginia, 
mild and pleasant in the winter time. The surface of New Eng- 
land is made up largely of hills and mountains, and is drained by 
short rapid rivers. The soil naturally is not very fertile, and 
the climate in the winter is cold and severe. The broad fertile 
plains of the South, and the hills, mountains, and small valleys 
of New England were alike all covered with a great, dense forest, 
but as regards topography, climate and soil, the two sections are 
distinctly different. The conditions of the topography, climate and 
soil of the middle colonies, which consisted of New York, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, were about midway between 
those of the southern colonies on the one hand and of New Eng- 
land on the other. The soil, unlike that of New England and like 
that of the southern colonies, was rich. The rainfall was abund- 
ant, and this was also true of both the other sections. The climate 
was not so cold as that of New England and not so mild and pleas- 
ant as that of the southern colonies. The surface of the land was 
not divided into a large number of small valleys as was the case 
in New England, neither did it consist of broad, extensive plains 
as was the case in the southern colonies. 

INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 

The institution afifected most directly by topography, climate 
and soil is Business, or Industrial life; and it therefore will be 
the first institution discussed. Farming; engaging in some pro- 
fession, as law, medicine, or the ministry; mining; manufactur- 
ing ; the carrying on of trade or commerce ; and all other things 
which men do to make a living, comprise the institution which is 
called Business, or Industrial life. In order to add clearness to 
the treatment, the professions of law, medicine, and the ministry 



96 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

will be treated under the svib-head — Professional Life in the Colo- 
nies. The other factors of Industrial life in the colonies will be 
treated under the sub-head — Commercial Industries. In treating 
the " Commercial Industries," each of three groups of colonies 
will be taken up separately because the conditions of each group 
differ from those in the other two groups, and this difference had 
an important effect on some of the other institutions. 



[ Commercial Industries 
I. The Southern Colonies 

(a) Products 

Tobacco is and has been from early colonial times one 
of the chief southern products. After its discovery by 
the first settlers of Virginia it gained rapidly in popu- 
larity in England and raising tobacco soon became the 
chief occupation of the colonists of Virginia and Mary- 
land. In fact the whole life of these two colonies cen- 
tered around its production. It was used as money. A 
man's wealth was counted in pounds of tobacco. Laws 
were made regulating its production and the quality 
exported. Rice, indigo and cotton were the principal 
products of North and South Carolina and Georgia. 
These three products were as important in the three 
most southern colonies as was tobacco in Virginia and 
Maryland, and, like tobacco, they caused the growth of 
large plantations. Rice was the most important of these 
products, especially in South Carolina, which led in its 
production. Comparatively little cotton was raised until 
after the Revolution and the invention of the cotton gin. 
The wealth of the southern colonies came largely from 
the exportation of tobacco, rice and indigo. Wheat, 
hogs and cattle were also raised, and resin and turpentine 
produced. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 97 

The SoutJicrn Colonies 

(b) Plantations 

1. Growth 

The climate and soil of the southern colonies were 
well suited to the extensive production of a few staples 
and the broad, flat plains encouraged the growth of 
large plantations under the control of one man. 

2. Relation to Growth of Cities 

The large number of rivers made it easy for most 
of the plantations to maintain their own warehouses. 
The vessels that carried the exports called at these 
warehouses on the different plantations along the 
rivers, and brought the things needed by the planter, 
but which were not produced on his plantation. This 
custom was the main reason why there were no large 
cities in the southern colonies. There was no induce- 
ment for towns to grow. 

3. Relation to Growth of Slavery 

The production of tobacco, rice, indigo and cotton 
required a large amount of labor. Slave labor was 
cheap and well suited to this kind of work, while white 
labor was extremely hard to obtain. The planter soon 
came to depend almost entirely on the negro slave for 
labor, and as the plantations increased in size and num- 
ber, the demand for slave labor became more and more 
urgent, and the number of slaves increased rapidly. 

(c) Relation of Slavery to Industrial Conditions 

Negro slavery caused the southern people to look upon 
labor as degrading, and this caused immigrants from 
Europe who wished to work for wages until they se- 
cured enough money to engage in business for them- 
selves, to avoid the South and to settle in the North. 
As slave labor was suited only to agriculture and house- 
work, the lack of skilled white labor prevented the de- 



98 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

velopment of manufacturing or commerce in the South. 
This tended to make the South settle down still more 
firmly to plantation life and to the production of a few 
great staples. Southern life was being moulded more 
and more closely around the institution of slavery, just 
as northern life would have been had conditions there 
made slave labor as profitable as it was in the South. 

2. Nezv England 
(a) Occupations 

1. Agriculture 

The division of the country into small valleys pre- 
vented the growth of large plantations in New Eng- 
land, and the climate and soil prevented the extensive 
production of any one staple. It was hard for any 
New England colony to raise more food than it re- 
quired for its own use, but the variety of products was 
much greater than in the southern colonies. These 
conditions made it almost impossible for New Eng- 
land to become wealthy and prosperous from farming, 
and the people therefore devoted a large part of their 
time and energy to fishing, commerce and manufac- 
turing. 

2. Manufactures 

Although the colonial policy of England hampered 
the growth of manufacturing, many things were made 
and the fovmdation was laid for the great manufactur- 
ing establishments that sprang up after the Revolu- 
tion. Shops, where every form of trade was plied, 
lined the streets of the towns. The farmer made most 
of his tools and furniture and his wife spun the flax 
or wool, wove the cloth and made the clothing. The 
swift running rivers furnished the power for thou- 
sands of saw mills and grist mills. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 99^ 

3. Fisheries 

One great source of wealth was the fisheries, of 
which the whale and cod were especially profitable. 
Large quantities of fish and fish oil were exported. 

4. Commerce 

The New England colonists gave a great deal of at- 
tention to commerce. New England built the best 
ships in the world. She built all her own vessels and 
many for other nations. She carried nearly all her ex- 
ports and imports in her own ships, and her ships be- 
came an important factor in the commerce of the West 
Indies and of Europe. In spite of her poor soil, and 
the fact that her imports were much larger than her 
exports, the wealth from her extensive commerce, to- 
gether with the industry of her people, made New Eng- 
land wealthy, and caused the growth of many pros- 
perous towns and cities. 

(b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery 

In New England natural conditions forced the people 
into varied occupations in which slave labor could not be 
used with profit. Slavery, therefore, was gradually 
abolished and free labor made the basis of industrial 
life. There was no important class of people in New 
England that opposed slavery on moral grounds. Its 
growth was controlled by industrial conditions w^hich 
were due to topography, climate and soil. 

The Middle Colonies 

(a) Occupations 

I. Agriculture 

Nearly all kinds of farm products were raised in the 
middle colonies. The fact that the climate and soil 
were suited to many products tended to prevent the 
growth of large plantations and the extensive produc- 

L.ofC. 



100 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

tion of only a few staples. Farm produce and cattle 
were raised and sold in large quantities. 

2. Manufactures 

Manufacturing was carried on to considerable ex- 
tent. While there were no large manufacturing es- 
tablishments, the beginnings were being made. In 
New York cloth and glass were manufactured and saw 
mills and grist mills were numerous. In Pennsylvania 
clothing was made and iron ore was mined and ex- 
ported. Ships were built at Philadelphia, and the grist 
mills of Pennsylvania made into flour much of the 
wheat raised in Maryland and Virginia. 

3. Commerce 

Philadelphia and New York were two of the three 
leading commercial cities of the colonies. Their ships 
carried the produce of the colonies to nearly all the 
civilized nations of the world and brought back goods 
in return. 

(b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery 

Industrial conditions in the middle colonies made 
slavery of more value than in New England, but of much 
less value than in the South. Therefore the number of 
slaves was smaller than in the southern colonies and 
larger than in New England. 

II Professional Life 
2. The Ministry 

The ministry was the only one of the three learned pro- 
fessions that held in the colonies anything like the high 
position they hold today. In New England especially the 
ministers were men of fine character, good education, and 
strong influence. They were the leaders of the people, not 
only in religion, but in education, literature and even in 
law making. In later years they lost much of their influ- 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 101 

ence in the government, but retained their leadership in 
other respects. In the middle colonies also the ministers 
ranked high. They were able and energetic, and exerted 
great influence on the life of the people by establishing 
schools and by improving moral conditions. No one church 
was so powerful as was the Congregational church of the 
Puritans in New England, and hence the ministers did not 
have so much influence in government affairs. In most 
of the southern colonies the Episcopal Church was the state 
church, and it was supported by public taxes. As the 
ministers received their salaries whether they performed 
their duties or not, and as many of them were unfit for 
their work, they exerted much less influence for good 
than the ministers in the other colonies. After the Revo- 
lution, when the revenue from public taxes was taken away 
from the Episcopal Church, it secured a much abler class 
of ministers and they became a positive factor for good in 
the community. The ministers of the other churches in 
the South were able men and tried to establish schools, 
but without success. 

2. Medicine 

As has been stated before, medicine as a profession 
amounted to but very little in the colonies, especially 
before 1750. This profession developed earliest and most 
rapidly in Pennsylvania and in this respect Massachusetts 
came next. From the very first in Pennsylvania there were 
some physicians who had secured their educations in the 
universities of England and were well qualified to practice 
medicine. These did all they could to advance the profes- 
sion. In 1734 the first medical work in the colonies was 
produced. This was written by Dr. Cadwalder from Lon- 
don, who later gave a course of lectures on anatomy and 
physiology, and in 1750 became one of the first physicians 
of the hospital in Philadelphia. In 1760 Dr. Sheppen and 
Dr. Morgan established in Philadelphia a medical college 



102 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

which five years later became a part of the University of 
Pennsylvania. There were fewer quacks in Pennsylvania 
than in any of the other colonies. In New England, and 
especially in the southern colonies, druggists and barbers 
often practiced medicine and surgery along with their 
regular occupations, and this was the main reason why the 
people had so little respect for the medical profession. 
There were but few good doctors in the southern colo- 
nies, — fewer than in New England. Many of the ministers 
of early New England had studied medicine before leaving 
England. They frequently acted as doctors and were 
better than most of those engaged in the profession. After 
these early ministers died the profession for a time fell 
into the hands of quacks who knew little about medicine. 
But the ability of the doctors soon improved and the profes- 
sion became more and more respected. Just before the 
Revolution there were many able physicians in New Eng- 
land and they were highly respected. New England, how- 
ever, was behind Pennsylvania in the matter of hospitals 
and medical schools. 

3. Loii' 

The profession of law was of more importance in New 
England and Pennsylvania than in any of the other colo- 
nies just as was the case with the profession of medicine. 
Virginia, however, just before the Revolution, had as many 
able lawyers as New England and more than Pennsylvania 
or any of the other colonies. For a long time in New 
England, and for a longer time in Virginia, there were 
so few able lawyers, that the profession could hardly be 
said to exist at all. In Pennsylvania, on the other hand, 
there were a number of fairly good lawyers from the very 
first and the profession was held in high esteem, which 
was not the case in any of the other colonies. But about 
1750 the profession of law in New England was repre- 
sented by a large number of very able lawyers, and a little 
later the same was true in Virginia. Among the New 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 103 

England lawyers at this time were John Adams, Samuel 
Qiiincy, Samuel Gridley and James Otis ; among those 
in Virginia were Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry and 
George Mason. These men were just in time to prepare 
the colonies for, and to guide them through, the Revo- 
lutionary War ; and to help make, and to help put into 
effect, the present Constitution of the United States. Many 
of them made a world-wide reputation. To their wisdom 
and good common sense the people of the United States 
owe a great debt of gratitude. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 

(Industrial Conditions) 

What is meant by the institutional life of a nation? Show by illus- 
trations how the life of every citizen is related to each of the five institu- 
tions. Why should a nation be judged largely by the condition of its in- 
stitutions? Why are topography, climate and soil important influences in 
history? Describe the topography, climate and soil of the southern colo- 
nies. Of New England. Of the middle colonies. Show how these in- 
fluences determined that the South should be almost entirely agricultural 
and should have slave labor. Show how they determined that the North 
should develop various industries and should have free labor. How did 
these differences affect the history of the nation? 

I • 

Describe fully what industrial life includes. Why do topography, 
climate and soil affect industrial life more than any other of the institu- 
tions? What were the leading southern products, and how did they 
affect the growth of large plantations ? Tell all you can about the culture 
of tobacco in the southern colonies. Why were laws made regulating 
its production and the quality exported? How did topography, climate 
and soil encourage the growth of large plantations in the South? Discuss 
the effect of large plantations upon the growth of cities. How did the large 
plantations affect the growth of slavery? Why were there few free la- 
borers in the South? How did the lack of free labor affect the growth 
of manufactures, commerce and similar industries ? 

Why were there no large plantations in New England? Why did the 
farmers of New England raise a great variety of products instead of a 
few staples as did the planters of the South ? What caused the people of 
New England to engage in other occupations besides farming? Describe 
the manufactures of New England. Tell what you can of the fisheries of 



104 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

New England. Discuss the conditions of trade and commerce in New 
England. Why was there little slavery in New England? If, instead of 
a hilly country, poor soil, and cold winters, New England had had a warm, 
pleasant climate, and had consisted of broad fertile plains, what would 
have been the effect upon industrial life? 

Describe the farming conditions in the middle colonies. Compare 
them with those in the southern colonies and in New England. Describe 
the manufactures of the middle colonies. Why did England try to prevent 
the growth of manufactures in the colonies? How did this affect the 
colonies ? Tell what you can of the commerce of Philadelphia and New 
York. What was the effect of industrial conditions in the middle colo- 
nies on slavery? Compare this effect with the effect of these conditions on 
slavery in New England and in the southern colonies. 

Describe the character and position of the ministers of New England. 
Why were the ministers of so much more importance and influence in 
New England than in any of the other colonies? In what way and why 
did the ministers of New England lose much of their influence after the 
colonies became royal provinces ? Describe the character and work of the 
ministers of the middle colonies. What is a State or Established church? 
Is it good policy to have a church supported by public taxes? What was 
the character of the Episcopal ministers of the southern colonies? Why 
did they have less ability and influence than the ministers of the other 
colonies or of the other churches in the South? 

What was the general condition of the medical profession in the colo- 
nies? Tell what you can of this profession in Pennsylvania, noting the 
ability of the doctors, the medical schools and the hospitals. What can 
you say of the profession of law in the colonies? What change was there 
in the condition of this profession just before the Revolution? Compare 
the southern colonies with the middle colonies and New England in respect 
to the character and ability of their lawyers. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

What is meant by the institutional life of a nation? Show by illus- 
trations how the life of every citizen is related to each of the five institu- 
tions. Why are topography, climate and soil important influences in his- 
tory? Discuss the topography, climate and soil of the South and their 
effect upon the industrial life of the southern colonies. Discuss the to- 
pography, climate and soil of the middle colonies and New England and 
their effect upon the industrial life of these sections. Discuss the effect 
of differences in the topography, climate and soil of the northern and 
southern sections of the country upon the history of the nation. Discuss 
the causes of the growth of large plantations in the South. Discuss the 
relation of the plantation system to the growth of slavery and to the 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 105 

growth of cities. Discuss the effect of slavery on industrial conditions in 
the South. Compare the industrial conditions of New England with those 
of the southern colonies and discuss the cause of difference. Discuss the 
commercial industries of the middle colonies. Discuss the conditions 
which tended to the growth of slavery in the South and to its abolition in 
the North. Show the effect of this upon the industrial and political life 
of the nation. Discuss the character and position of the ministers in the 
colonies, comparing those of different sections of the country. Discuss 
the condition of the medical profession in the colonies. Tell what you 
can of the profession of law in the colonies. 



106 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

The amusements of people, the social relations among the vari- 
ous classes of society, treatment of neighbors, customs of dress, 
daily manner of speaking and acting toward others, and all other 
things which interest or amuse men in a social way, constitute the 
social life of a people. Many of these social factors are closely 
related to industrial conditions. The social conditions in the 
southern colonies, in New England, and in the middle colonies, 
differed, and this difference was due largely to the difference in 
the industrial conditions in these groups of colonies. In fact, 
the more closely the history of any nation is studied, the plainer 
it becomes that its five institutions are closely related. The 
social conditions of a nation are closely related to each of its 
other four institutions, — business, government, religion and edu- 
cation. Therefore, when studying any one of the five institutions 
in any nation, it is of importance to understand the relation of 
that institution to each of the other four. 

At the present time it is not easy to realize how the people 
in the colonies lived, dressed, and amused themselves. This is due 
largely to the difference between the conditions which existed in 
the colonies and those which exist at the present time. It therefore 
becomes necessary to note carefully some of the conditions which 
made the social life in the colonies differ so much from the social 
life of today. Among the more important conditions that affected 
social life in the colonies were the newness of the country, the 
poor means of transportation and communication and, in the 
southern colonies, the large plantations and mode of farming. 
The people of the colonies lived in the edge of a mighty forest 
that covered the entire country. At times this forest must have 
seemed to the lonely settlers as vast as the sea and as silent as 
death. They did not know how far this great forest extended, 
or what wild animals or races of men it contained. This life in 
the edge of a great, silent, and unexplored forest, and on the edge 
of the sea, affected the customs and habits of the people. The 
effect of this solitude on the lives of the southern people was 
emphasized by the almost total lack of cities and towns, and by 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 107 

the nature of plantation life. Nearly all the people lived on plan- 
tations which were usually far apart. This caused the people 
on the plantations to visit each other less frequently than they 
would have done had they lived in cities or close together on small 
farms. The poor means of transportation and communication in 
colonial times tended to make the life of the settlers still more 
lonely. The great improvements in modes of travel and communi- 
cation since then have had a profound effect on social conditions. 
At the present time people, while eating breakfast, can read in 
their morning paper about all the important things that have 
taken place up to midnight of the day before, in all parts of the 
world reached by the telegraph. Often a new style of dress, or a 
new invention of some kind, will be used in many parts of the 
world within a few months after it is first made. It was quite 
different in the colonies. There were no railroads, or telegraphs, 
or telephones in the world at that time. People could not travel 
on the land except by walking, riding or driving. All mail and 
news had to be carried by the same means, and it should be 
remembered that there were few roads then and that most of these 
were usually in a very bad condition. If Boston had burned, 
it would have been five or six days before the news would have 
reached New York and many more days before the people in 
Virginia would have heard of it. This slow means of travel and 
communication made the life in the colonies, especially in the 
southern colonies, much more isolated and lonely than it would 
have been had the railroads and telegraphs existed. It also 
affected the customs and habits of the people by preventing them 
from becoming acquainted readily with the customs and habits 
of others. In studying the social conditions of the colonies it is 
well to remember all these other conditions which helped to make 
the social conditions of that time so different from those of today. 

I The Southern Colonies 

I. Classes of Society 

At the time of the Revolution the total population of the 
southern colonies was about thirteen hundred fiftv thous- 



108 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

and. Of this number about six hundred twenty thousand 
were negro slaves. As a whole the people of the southern 
colonies consisted of four classes — the negro slave, the 
white servants, the middle class, and the upper class. The 
middle class which consisted of those who owned the 
smaller farms and plantations, shaded gradually into the 
upper class, which consisted of those who owned the larger 
plantations. In the three most southern colonies there 
were only three classes to be found, the middle class being 
absent in South Carolina, and the upper class being absent 
in North Carolina and Georgia. 

(a) The Negro Slave 

Far below all other classes was the negro slave. He 
was under the absolute control of his master, and could 
be bought and sold like any other property. Many of 
the slaves were savages, brought direct from Africa, 
and they were kept in dense ignorance in order that 
danger of insurrection might be lessened. In some of 
the colonies the negroes far outnumbered the whites, 
and the white people lived in constant fear of uprisings. 
This dread is shown plainly in many severe laws relating 
to the negroes. They were not allowed to leave the 
plantation to which they belonged without permits, and 
if they ran away might be killed by any one on sight. 
A white man could not be imprisoned for killing a negro, 
but he might be fined. These severe laws would indicate 
that the negroes were badly and evenly cruelly treated, 
but as a rule such was not the case. The negroes em- 
ployed on the small farms and as house servants were, 
as a rule, well treated in all the colonies. On the large 
plantations of South Carolina and Georgia they did not 
fare so well, for many of the planters lived in Charles- 
ton and left the control of their plantation and negroes 
to overseers, who often overworked the slaves and 
treated them cruellv. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 109 

(b) Indented Servants 

Indented white servants were found in all the colo- 
nies. An indented servant was a person sold to some 
one for a certain number of years. During the term of 
the indenture or contract he belonged to his master, 
and could not leave without his consent, but after he 
had served the time specified he became free. These 
indented servants and the poor whites comprised the 
second class of society in the colonies, but, because of 
race and ability, were far above the negro slave. In 
character they ranged from English, Scotch and Irish 
prisoners of war to the common criminal. Many boys 
and girls were stolen in England and sent over to the 
colonies, and some honest and hard-working, but poor 
people became indented servants in order to pay for their 
passage to America. As a class, however, the indented 
servants were of poor character, for the most part trans- 
ported criminals and the scum of the cities of England, 
and when they became free, formed the most undesirable 
class in the colonies. The laws relating to indented 
servants were very severe. During their term of ser- 
vice their condition was little better than that of the 
negro slave. 

(c) The [Middle and Upper Classes 

The middle class in the southern colonies was com- 
posed of traders, merchants and small land holders, while 
the large land owners composed the upper class. The 
traders and merchants were held in contempt by the. 
land owners, but there was no material distinction 
between the large and the small land owners. The 
owners of the large plantations were much like the 
country gentlemen of England, except that they were 
even more independent and aristocratic. They ruled 
the colonies in which they lived and were given cordial 
support by all the other classes. They were brave and 
emphatic in their defense of English liberty, and from 



no THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

this class came some of the leaders during the struggle 
for independence. Virginia alone, in this period, gave 
to the nation Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Marshall 
and Henry. The conditions on the large plantations 
tended to develop men of strong character and ability. 
There were more than five hundred persons on some of 
these plantations, and their management required con- 
siderable ability. Frequently the owners of large plan- 
tations trained their slaves in the various trades so 
that very little outside help was required. 

2. Dress and Amtiseuiejits 

In dress the upper classes followed the fashions in 
London, wearing rich, gay colored silks and velvets, rare 
laces and jewels, and powdered wigs. The plantations 
being so large and so far apart, there was less social life 
in the South than in some of the northern colonies. In 
Charleston, however, there was more gay social life than 
in any other city in America. The southern land holders 
possessed great hospitality, and love for social life and out 
door sports. Horse-racing and hunting were their two 
principal amusements. Rural field sports were also very 
popular and were usually under the direction of the 
planters. 

II New England 

I. Classes of Society 

The total population of New England at the time of the 
Revolution was about seven hundred thousand. Of this 
population the number of slaves did not exceed fifteen 
thousand. As in the South, there were four classes of 
society — the slaves, the indented servants, the middle 
class, and the upper class. 

(a) Slaves 

The small number of slaves in New England was due 
largely to industrial conditions, and the industrial con- 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 111 

ditions of New England were the result, at least to a 
large extent, of its topography, climate and soil. The 
slaves were empk-'yed almost exclusively as house ser- 
vants. They were treated kindly, owing to their close 
personal relation with their masters, and the laws regard- 
ing them were much milder than in the South. 

(b) Indented Servants 

There were comparatively few members of this class 
in New England. They were treated kindly, and after 
they became free, they usually succeeded in going into 
business for themselves. 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

Most of the members of these two classes were of 
good English stock and there was no distinct line 
between them. The middle class was composed of 
farmers, merchants, and tradesmen, and formed the 
mass of the population. This class was much better 
educated in New England than in the other colonies. 
There was as distinct and as strong an aristocracy in 
New England as in the southern colonies but it rested 
on a somewhat different basis. The upper or aristo- 
cratic class was composed not of large land holders 
but of those whose families for generations had been 
noted for their wealth and education or service to the 
government ; of those who were well educated ; of those 
w^ho had performed valuable public service ; and of those 
who had been very successful as merchants or in com- 
merce. 

2. Social Distinctions 

Nearly all offices were filled by men of the upper class. 
The son of a carpenter or a bricklayer or of any one 
engaged in a similar occupation could not hold office. In 
church people were seated according to their social position, 
and people were compelled to occupy the seats assigned 



112 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

to them. A student on entering college was assigned a 
position according to the social standing of his father. 
It is rather surprising that in 'i new country where labor 
was considered honorable that so many of the every day 
affairs of life should have been so much affected by 
social position. 

3. Dress and Amusements 

The nature of the Puritan religion had a great deal to 
do with the dress and amusements of the New England 
people. The Puritan religion made New England life 
earnest, simple and solemn. It taught that amusements 
and undue hilarity and pleasure were the works of Satan. 
The wealthy class wore clothes of fine material but simple 
in style. The outdoor amusements consisted of hunting, 
fishing, sleighing and various athletic sports. After New 
England was placed under the royal governors the church 
lost much of its power in government affairs and the life 
of the people became brighter and more cheerful. While 
theatres were not countenanced until after the Revolution, 
balls and parties came to be an unquestioned part of social 
life. 

Ill The Middle Colonies 
I. Classes of Society 

At the time of the Revolution the total population of 
the middle colonies was about six hundred and seventy 
thousand of which number about sixty-five thousand were 
slaves. With the exception of the large Dutch land hold- 
ers along the Hudson and Mohawk rivers in New York, 
the people of the middle colonies were divided into but 
three well defined classes — the slaves, the indented ser- 
vants, and the class corresponding to the middle class in 
Virginia and in New England. 



Institutional Life in the Colonics llJi 

(a) Slaves 

As in New England, nearly all the slaves were em- 
ployed as house servants, and consequently they were 
usually well treated. Although the number of slaves 
was small, at times there was fear of a slave uprising 
in the large cities. All such attempts, or even indica- 
tions of such attempts, met with severe punishment. 

(b) Indented Servants 

The number of indented servants was larger than 
in New England, and they were not so well treated. 
With the exception of Virginia, Pennsylvania contained 
more indented servants than any other colony. 

(C) The Middle Class 

The great mass of the people belonged to this class 
which was vigorous, earnest and progressive. There 
were fewer English in proportion to the population in 
the middle colonies than in any of the other colonies. 
New York contained a large number of Dutch, and the 
German, French, Scotch and Irish comprised a large 
part of the population of Pennsylvania and Delaware. 

(d) The Upper Class 

The only distinct upper class or aristocracy in the 
middle colonies was made up of the large Dutch land 
owners, whose ancestors had received grants of land 
along the Hudson and Mohawk rivers when the Dutch 
first settled New York. The owners of these estates 
had even more authority and power than the large land 
owners of the South. Each of the larger estates was 
entitled to one representative in the legislature of the 
colony. In some cases the owner held almost absolute 
power over his tenants, even to inflicting the death 
penalty for violation of laws. 



114 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

2. Dress and Amusements 

In the country and small towns the life of the people 
was quiet and simple. As a rule the clothes were home- 
made of home spun cloth. The amusements were few and 
simple, consisting of corn huskings and spinning bees, 
and of simple out door sports. There was more social 
life in the country than among the New England farmers. 
On festive occasions there was a good deal of drinking 
and dancing. In the cities there was much gay social life. 
In dress, the wealthier class in Philadelphia and New York 
followed the London fashions closely, both men and 
women wearing silk and velvet and rich, bright colored 
materials. The principal amusements were balls, parties 
and theatres, and clubs for the young men. With the 
exception of Charleston, gay social life was enjoyed to a 
fuller extent in New York and Philadelphia than in any 
of the other cities in the colonies. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Social Conditions) 

I 

Describe fully what constitutes social life. What were the more im- 
portant conditions affecting social life in the colonies? Name and de- 
scribe the four classes of society that existed in the southern colonies. 
What was the condition of the negro slave when he was first brought 
to America? Why was he not educated? Describe the laws relating to 
the negroes. Why were such laws passed? Tell all you can of the treat- 
ment of slaves. Why was there a difference in the treatment of slaves 
between the extreme southern colonies, Georgia and South Carolina, and 
those southern colonies further north? Describe the character of the 
indented servants of the southern colonies. How were they treated? 
Compare their condition with that of the slaves. What distinctions ex- 
isted between the middle and upper classes in the southern colonies? In 
what way did slavery affect the attitude of the gentlemen of the upper 
class toward tradesmen and merchants? Describe the character and po- 
sition of the southern gentlemen. What can you say of their patriotism? 
Name some of the leading patriots of our nation who belonged to the 
upper class in the southern colonies. Show how the conditions of planta- 
tion life tended to develop men of strong character and ability. Describe 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 115 

the industrial life on a large plantation. Describe the dress of the upper 
classes. What amusements were most popular with the southerners? De- 
scribe the rural field sports. 

II 

What classes of society existed in New England? Describe each class. 
Describe the treatment of the slaves and bound servants. Upon what 
basis did the distinction between the middle and upper classes rest in 
New England? How did this diflfer from the southern basis of aris- 
tocracy? How did a man's social position in New England affect his 
prominence in politics? How did class distinctions enter into the every 
day life of the people? How did they affect college life? What was the 
effect of the Puritan religion on the dress and amusements of the 
people? Describe the amusements of the New England people. What 
effect did the coming of the royal governors have on the social life 
of New England? 

HI 

Compare the white and the slave populations of the middle colonies 
with those of New England and the southern colonies. What classes of 
society were found in the middle colonies? Compare the treatment of 
slaves ^n these colonies with their treatment in the southern colonies, and 
in New England. What was the character of the bound servants of the 
middle colonies? What proportion of the total population of the middle 
colonies was of English descent? Compare this proportion with the pro- 
portion which existed in New England and in the southern colonies. Of 
what did the aristocracy of New York consist? Compare the owners of 
large estates on the Hudson with the large land holders of the South in 
respect to position and power. Describe the dress and amusements of the 
people of the country and small towns. Describe the dress and amuse- 
ments of the upper classes in the cities. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the general conditions affecting social life in the colonies. 
Discuss briefly the classes of society existing in the colonies. Discuss the 
condition of the slaves in the colonies, comparing their conditions in the 
three sections. Discuss the indented servants and their conditions in the 
various colonies. Discuss the middle class in New England and in the 
southern and middle colonies. Discuss the character and position of the 
upper class in New England and in the southern and middle colonies. 
Discuss the social distinctions existing in New England and in the South. 
Discuss the dress and amusements of the people of the colonies. 



116 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

GOVERNMENT 

111 beginning the formal study of government, it is suggested 
that a general view of the subject be presented to the pupil by 
some such discussion as the following : 

Each pupil attending school lives with his parents, and is 
therefore one member of a family. He is also a member of the 
school that he attends. He is a citizen or member of the county 
in which he lives, and whether he lives in a town, a city, or in 
the country, he is a member of one of the parts or subdivisions of 
the county. He is also a member of the state in which he lives, 
and as the states make up the nation, he is a member of the na- 
tion, or, as is usually said, a citizen of the United States. Each 
family, school, subdivision of the county, county, state, and the 
nation also, have certain rules or laws which are called govern- 
ment. Each pupil, therefore, lives under several different forms 
of government. He lives under the government of his parents 
or guardian ; under the government of his teacher and the school 
trustees or board of education ; under the government of the city 
or other division of the county in which he lives ; under the gov- 
ernment of the county in which he lives ; under the government 
of the state in which he lives ; and under the government of the 
United States. Everyone lives under these dififerent forms of 
government and must obey the rules or laws of each. Men and 
women of course are not under the rules of the family and 
school in the same way that a pupil is, but they must obey the 
general laws relating to the family and school. With so many 
laws it would seem that the laws of the family, school, county, 
state and nation would conflict and interfere with each other. 
They do not, however, and this is most remarkable. All these 
laws work in harmony. This is not the result of chance or acci- 
dent. Our ancestors for thousands of years have been working 
at the dififerent divisions of government and making laws for 
each. A long time ago when our ancestors were savages the 
laws were rude and simple. Ever since then the laws have gradu- 
ally been changed, increased in number and made better, and at 
the present time they are being changed and made better each 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 117 

year. The laws have been changed and are being changed in 
order that boys and girls and men and women may live happier 
and more useful lives. 

I Local Government 

I. The County 

The governments of the state and of the United States 
are known as the state and national governments and that 
of the county and all smaller divisions is known as local 
government. To-day in nearly all the states west of the 
Appalachian mountains and in many of those east, the 
county is the most powerful unit or division of local gov- 
ernment. Its powers and duties are next to those of the 
state, and they are carried out by a board of men called 
commissioners or supervisors, who are elected by the peo- 
ple. In nearly all the counties these county boards must 
levy taxes and take general charge of the money afifairs 
of the county, look after the schools, construct bridges and 
roads, and look after the poor. In addition to this board 
of commissioners or supervisors, there are a number of 
other county officers, as sheriff, treasurer, assessor, tax 
collector, superintendent of schools, auditor, recorder and 
judge. From this it will be seen that the county is a very 
important unit of government. The county did not always 
have these great powers, but in all the colonies except 
New England and South Carolina the county was the 
most important unit of local government. In New Eng- 
land it possessed some important powers. In each county 
there was a county court composed of men elected by the 
people and of others appointed by the governor, which 
could interpret the laws in certain cases, lay out public 
roads, and oversee the township officers. It was not so 
important as the township, however. In the South, ex- 
cept in South Carolina, the county had control of all im- 
portant local affairs. In Virginia the county court whose 
members were appointed by the governor, acted as a 



118 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

judicial body and had general charge of the affairs of the 
county, such as levying taxes, care of the public money, 
and appointing some of the county officers. In all the 
colonies except South Carolina and those of New England, 
the county was the local unit that elected delegates to the 
legislature or law making body of the colony. In the 
middle colonies the county was especially important. The 
Pennsylvania plan of county government has been adopted 
by a large majority of the states. In that colony the county 
board consisted of three commissioners elected by all the 
people of the colony, and had great power in local affairs. 
A number of other county officers were elected by the 
people and considerable power given to them. Each 
county so far as its local affairs were concerned, was a 
little republic. Most of the states which have adopted this 
plan have changed it somewhat. In New York the mem- 
bers of the county board were called supervisors and were 
elected by, and represented, the different townships of 
the county. This plan also has been copied in some of 
the states. 

2. The Tozvnship 

In New England each county consisted of townships. 
Townships were formed before the early counties were 
organized. This was due to the fact that the Puritans 
came over in congregations and established towns. A 
town in New England included not only the town proper, 
but the adjacent country also. In New England, there- 
fore, "Town" and "Township" meant the same in so far 
as it relates to a unit of local government. These town- 
ships had by far the most power in local affairs. Meet- 
ings called town meetings were held by all the voters in 
the township, and at these meetings people could levy 
taxes and direct the management of the money raised, 
could elect delegates to the legislature of the colony, 
could elect township officers, and could provide for schools. 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 119 

In fact they could act on all the more important local 
affairs. While the township has lost some of its powers, 
it is still the most important unit of local government in 
New England. The principle of township government 
exists in most of the states at the present time but in a 
different sense than in New England. Most of the country 
west of the Appalachian mountains has been divided into 
townships by the government of the United States, and 
these divisions are often used for purposes of local gov- 
ernment. In many states the counties have been divided 
into districts, precincts, or townships, but not the six- 
mile-square townships established by the National Gov- 
ernment. These smaller divisions are used simply for the 
management of purely local affairs, and do not affect gen- 
eral county government. 

3. The Parish 

In South Carolina each county was divided into sub- 
divisions called parishes or districts, and they were the 
most important unit of local government. They had much 
the same power as the township in New England, and the 
county was of even less importance than in New England. 
The parish remained the unit of local government in South 
Carolina until after the Civil War, when the county was 
given control of local affairs. In Virginia the counties 
were divided into parishes, but the officers of the parish 
had little to do except to look after the affairs of the 
Episcopal Church. 

Colonial and State Government 

Next to the county in the affairs of government is the 
state. The states in matters of government have control of 
all those things that the people have not given to the national 
government of the United States or which are not controlled 
by the county or the smaller units of local government. The 



120 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

people of the United States have given to the national gov- 
ernment control of all those things which affect the nation 
as a whole, and have reserved to the states all other powers 
of government. That part of these reserved powers which 
affects more directly the people of the entire state, is given 
to the state government. The other part of these reserved 
powers belongs to the county and the smaller units of local 
government. The division of all these powers of govern- 
ment, — national, state, and local — is stated and defined in the 
national and state constitutions, which have been adopted by 
the people either by direct vote or by representatives whom 
they have elected. The state constitutions give to the state 
government the power to outline and define in many ways 
the powers of local government, but as the state officers 
are elected by the people, they carry out the wishes of the 
people in these matters. Thus it follows that in the United 
States the people are the source of all power, and that they 
have the power to change a law or even the form of gov- 
ernment. 

I. State Government — Legislative Department 

National, state, and local governments consist of three 
departments — the legislative, the executive, and the ju- 
dicial. The legislative department makes the laws ; the 
executive department executes or enforces them ; the ju- 
dicial department interprets, or tells what the law means, 
and applies them to the affairs of life. The legislative de- 
partment in all the states consists of two houses. The 
upper house is the smaller, and in every state is called 
the Senate. The lower house is usually called the Assem- 
bly or House of Representatives. The legislative depart- 
ment of the national government also consists of two 
houses. The upper is called the Senate and the lower the 
House of Representatives. The legislative department 
in the county consists of the board of commissioners or 
supervisors, and the legislative department of cities or 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 121 

other smaller units of local government consists of similar 
bodies. The members of the legislative department in all 
the states and in all the units of local government are 
elected by the people. The state legislatures have im- 
portant power and have control of many things. "All 
of the general laws under which our local governments 
and schools are organized, those referring to the state and 
local courts and procedure in these courts, those dealing 
with the making and enforcement of contracts, the trans- 
fer of property, marriage and divorce, with the prevention 
of the spread of diseases, with the incorporation of busi- 
ness houses — all of these form only a part of the vast num- 
ber under the charge of the legislatures, the whole, cov- 
ering a set of subjects of the first importance not only 
because there are so many, but because all are of such in- 
terest to us in our home and business life." 

State Government — Executive Department 

In all the states the highest executive officer is the Gov- 
ernor; in the national government, he is the President of 
the United States ; and in the larger towns he is called 
the mayor. In the counties the various county officials 
attend to the executive business. While the Governor is 
at the head of the executive department of the state, there 
are a number of other executive officers in the state who 
assist in enforcing the laws. Among the other more im- 
portant executive officers of each state are the Lieutenant- 
Governor, Secretary of State, Controller, Treasurer, Su- 
perintendent of Public Instruction, and Attorney-General. 
The governor is always elected by the people, and so are 
the other executive officers, except in a few states where 
some of them are appointed either by the governor or by 
the legislature. The lieutenant-governor usually presides 
over the Senate when it is in session and takes the gov- 
ernor's place if he resigns or dies, and when he is absent 
from the state. The other executive officers just named 



122 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

perform the duties of their various offices. All local offi- 
cers also must assist in enforcing the laws of the state, 
and this is a great help to the state officers. The governor 
is by far the most important executive officer in the state. 
He is commander-in-chief of the state soldiers or militia, 
and when the other state or local officers cannot enforce 
the laws, he may call on the soldiers to assist in their en- 
forcement. 

3. State Government — Judicial Department 

The judicial department of each state consists of a 
supreme court and of a number of lower courts. The ju- 
dicial department of the national department also con- 
sists of a supreme court and a number of lower courts. 
Next to the supreme court of the state are the circuit or 
district courts (in some states) ; next to these are the 
county courts ; and next to the county courts are the city 
courts and the justices' courts. The judges in all these 
courts are elected usually by the people but in several 
states some of them are appointed by the governor or 
legislature. The members of the supreme court are elected 
usually by the people of the entire state, and a judge in 
a lower court is elected by the people in that division of the 
state of which he is a judge. The city courts and justices' 
courts try the less important cases ; the county courts 
those which are of still more importance and from the 
last named courts cases may be appealed to the supreme 
courts. Many cases may be appealed from the lowest 
courts in the state up through all the others, and some cases 
may be appealed from the state supreme court to the 
United States courts. 

4. Colonial Government — Legislative Department 

The colonial governments, like the state governments 
of to-day, consisted of three departments — legislative, ex- 
ecutive, and judicial. The legislative department in all 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 123 

the colonies, like those in all the states to-day, consisted 
of two houses. The lower house was usually called house 
of representatives, the assembly, or house of burgesses. 
The members of the lower house, as is the case in all the 
states to-day, were elected by the people. But there was 
one important difference. In all the colonies, no one could 
vote for a member of the lower house or for any other 
officer of the colony, unless he owned a certain amount 
of property, whereas to-day in the United States no prop- 
erty qualification is required of a voter. The upper branch 
of the legislature in the colonies was called the council and 
consisted usually of twelve members, called assistants or 
members of the Governor's council. Except in Connecti- 
cut and Rhode Island, the members of the council were 
either appointed by the governor or by the lower house, 
as was the case in Massachusetts, and approved by the 
governor. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, the members 
of the upper house were elected by the people. Thus it 
becomes plain that except in these two colonies, the gov- 
ernor, by his power of appointment, practically controlled 
the upper branch of the legislature. It should be remem- 
bered, however, that with the exception of Connecticut and 
Rhode Island, the upper house, or council, had very little 
to do with making the laws. The main duty of the council 
was to advise the governor and to assist him in carrying 
out the duties of his office. 

5. Colonial Government — Executive Department 

The executive department in each colony consisted of 
the governor and the governor's council or upper house 
of the legislatvire. In Rhode Island and Connecticut the 
governors were elected by the people, and in Pennsylvania, 
Delaware and Maryland they were appointed by the pro- 
prietors. In all the other colonies they were appointed 
by the king. The royal and proprietary governors pos- 
sessed the important powers of vetoing laws passed by 



124 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

the legislatures, and of appointing judges and other offi- 
cers. They were continually quarrelling with the lower 
house except in Rhode Island and Connecticut where the 
governor and both houses worked together harmoniously. 

6. Colonial Government — Judicial Department 

The judicial department was merged into the executive 
department in the colonies, the governor and his council 
acting as the supreme judicial body of each colony. The 
minor judicial officers were appointed by the governor, 
although in a few cases they were elected by the people. 

7. Colonial Government — Classes 

Colonial government may be divided into three classes, 
on the basis of the manner of selecting the governor. In 
the charter government the people chose the governor. 
In the proprietary government the proprietor selected 
him, and in the royal government he was appointed by the 
king. But these names as to form of government are of 
very little importance. The important facts are that in 
all the thirteen colonies the lower, and by far the more 
important, branch of the law-making body was elected 
and controlled by the people ; that in all the colonies except 
Connecticut and Rhode Island, the council or upper house 
of the legislature was not elected by the people, but was 
appointed by the governor ; and that in all the colonies, 
with the same two exceptions, the governor was not elected 
by the people, but was appointed either by the king or by 
the proprietor. 

(a) Charter Government 

A charter government was one established by a writ- 
ten contract between the king and the colonists, stating 
the share which each should have in the government of 
the colony. This charter or contract could not be 
changed legally without the consent of both parties. 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 125 

During the eighteenth century, Connecticut and Rhode 
Island were the only real charter colonies. Massachu- 
setts was about half charter and half royal. 

(b) Proprietary Government 

A proprietary government was established when the 
king granted a large tract of land to some individual, 
who, by the terms of the grant, had the right to organize 
a colony and to appoint the governor. During the 
eighteenth century, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Mary- 
land were the only proprietary colonies. 

(c) Royal Government 

In the case of a royal colony, the king appointed a 
governor. The royal colonies were directly under the 
control of the king, but as stated above, the people con- 
trolled the legislative department. During the eighteenth 
century all the colonies, except the charter and pro- 
prietary colonies, were royal colonies. 

III National Government 

The national government of the colonies was the same as 
that of England. The English Parliament and the English 
king were the highest government authority in England and 
they were also the highest government authority in the col- 
onies. The English king and Parliament bore, in a general 
way, the same relation to the colonies that the national gov- 
ernment of the United States at the present time bears to the 
various states. When the people of the colonies became in- 
dependent, they established the national government to take 
the place of the English king and the English Parliament. 

IV Relation of Colonial Government to Present State 

Government 

We have already seen that local government to-day is the 
direct outgrowth of local government in the colonies. From 



126 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

a study of colonial government it becomes plain, that the 
legislative, executive and judicial departments of the state 
governments in the United States at the present time are 
simply the modification and expansion of these departments 
in the colonies. The colonial legislature consisted of a lower 
and an upper house. The lower house corresponds to the 
lower house in the state legislature to-day, and there have 
not been many important changes in its nature. The council, 
or upper house, in the colonies corresponds to the state sen- 
ate, or upper house, in the state legislature at the present 
time, but the council has undergone a great change. The 
members of the senate are elected by the people and the 
senate has as much power in making laws as the lower house. 
The governor is at the head of the state executive department 
to-day, as he was at the head of that department in the col- 
onies, but he is elected by the people. The same close re- 
lation between colonial times and the present time, exists in 
the judicial departments. The different courts in the col- 
onies correspond closely with the courts in the states at the 
present time, except that most of the judges are now elected 
by the people, and are separate and distinct bodies, whereas 
in the colonies the courts were often the legislative and ex- 
ecutive departments. The colonial governments of Connecti- 
cut and Rhode Island were so much like those of to-day, 
that their charters were adopted as their state constitutions 
and remained in effect until long after the Revolution, the 
only important change being the omission of the king's name 
in the public records and documents. The charter of Con- 
necticut remained the constitution of that state until 1818, 
and the charter of Rhode Island remained in effect until 1842. 
The greatest change in government since colonial times has 
been in the election of officers, and in the right to vote. 
Nearly all officers — local, state, and national — are now elect- 
ed by the people, whereas in the colonies many of them were 
appointed. In the colonies no one who did not own a cer- 
tain amount of property could vote for any officer of the 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 127 

colony, or for any local officer. At the present time no prop- 
erty qualification is required of any voter anywhere in the 
United States. All this means that the people have become 
much more democratic since colonial times. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Government) 

Under what different forms of government does each person Hve? 
Why do not the laws of these various governments conflict? 

I 

Describe fully what constitutes local government. What is the most 
important unit of local government at the present time? What are the 
names and duties of the board that has general charge of the county gov- 
ernment? Name the various county officers and briefly describe their 
duties. Compare the importance of the county in local government at the 
present time with its importance in colonial times. During colonial times 
how did the county in New England compare in importance with the county 
in the middle colonies and in the southern colonies ? Describe the com- 
position, powers and duties of the county court in New England. Com- 
pare the New England county court of colonial times with the county court 
that existed in the province of Virginia. 

Describe the New England township, noting its origin, and comparing 
its importance with that of the county. Give the composition, powers 
and duties of the old New England town-meetings. How does township 
government in New England differ from that in other parts of the country 
at the present time ? Describe the parish as a unit of government. Com- 
pare its importance in South Carolina with the importance of the township 
in New England. 

II 

Of what does the state government have control? What affairs of 
government are under the control of the national government. Explain how 
tne people of the United States are the source of all power. Of what three 
departments does national, state and local government consist? What is 
the object of this division into departments? Of what two houses does the 
legislative department of the national government consist at the present 
time? Of what two houses does the state legislative department consist? 
What constitutes the legislative department of local government? What 
are the general duties and powers of the state legislative department? 

Of what does the executive department of national, state and local gov- 
ernment consist? Name some of the more important executive officers 
of the state, and explain how the executive officials are elected. What are 
the general duties and powers of the executive department? 



i28 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

Of what does the judicial department of national, state and local 
government consist? What are the general duties and powers of the 
judicial department? 

Into how many departments was the government of the various colo- 
nies divided ? Compare the legislative department in the colonies with the 
state legislative department today in regard to the number of houses and 
qualification of members. During colonial times what were the general 
powers and duties of the lower branch of the legislative department? Of 
the upper branch? 

Of what did the executive department in the colonies consist? How 
were the governors selected? What were their general powers and duties? 
Of what did the judicial department in the colonies consist? Define its 
duties and powers. 

Name each class of colonial government. Explain Charter Govern- 
ment. Explain Proprietary Government. Explain Royal Government. 

Ill 
Of what did the national government of the colonies consist? Ex- 
plain the relation of the national government to the colonies. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the relation between local government in the colonies and 
local government at the present time. Show in what way the state legis- 
lative department today is simply an outgrowth and modification of the 
legislative department in the colonies. In what ways do the state executive 
departments today resemble the executive departments in the colonies ? 
Explain the relation between the judicial department of today and the 
judicial department of the colonies. What change has there been since 
colonial times as to the number of officers elected directly by the people ? 
What change has there been as to the qualifications of voters ? 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 129 

RELIGION: GROWTH OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY 

I Religious Liberty at the Present Time 

If the government of any civilized nation at the present 
time should kill or imprison or punish in any way, a person 
because he belonged to a certain church, its action would 
be severely condemned by almost every one. Scarcely any 
one to-day believes that a man should be killed or punished 
in any way because he may be a member of the Methodist, 
Presbyterian, Catholic or any other church. The right of a 
person to think and to act in religious matters as he may de- 
sire, so long as he does not interfere with the rights of others, 
is now conceded by almost everybody. So thoroughly is this 
principle established and accepted that the government of the 
United States, or of any other civilized nation, would use its 
entire power to protect its citizens in their rights to enjoy 
quietly and peacefully their religious ideas. 

II Religious Persecution in Europe 

The right of a person to enjoy quietly and peacefully his 
religious ideas is called "religious liberty." Strange as it 
now seems people have enjoyed religious liberty but for a 
very short time. Less than two hundred and fifty years ago, 
men and women were put to death in almost every nation, 
simply because they wished to belong to some other church 
than the one protected by the government. In Spain, France 
and Germany thousands were killed for this reason and many 
more were imprisoned or otherwise punished. Hundreds 
were put to death in England for the same reason. In all 
of these countries men and women were burned to death and 
tortured in other ways, because they would not uphold the 
established or state church — that is the church protected by 
the government. In 1686 thousands of Huguenots were mas- 
sacred in France. Women and children were dragged from 
their beds in the night and murdered because of their re- 
ligious ideas. From 1685 to 1700 fully two hundred thous- 



130 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

and Huguenots left France in order to escape these religious 
persecutions. From 1550 to 1650 more than one hundred 
thousand perished in the religious wars of Europe. 

Ill Religious Persecution in the Colonies 

These persecutions for religious reasons were not restricted 
to the Old World. Some of the English colonies in Arnerica 
did the same thing. For a long time in Massachusetts, men 
and women were not permitted to establish any church ex- 
cept the Congregational or Puritan church, or to teach or 
preach any religious doctrine except that of the Congrega- 
tional church. The government of Massachusetts whipped, 
imprisoned, and banished men and women because of their 
religious ideas. These persecutions did not stop with such 
punishments. Four Quakers were hanged in Boston — two 
men in 1659, o"^ woman in 1660, and another man in i66t. 
These four people were hanged by order of the court, and 
because they demanded the right to preach the doctrine of 
their church. It is absolutely incorrect to say that the Puri- 
tans came to New England for the purpose of establishing 
religious liberty. They came to the New World in order 
to escape the persecutions of the Episcopal church in Eng- 
land. They had no intention whatever of permitting any 
church to be established in New England except the Congre- 
gational church. Some of the other colonies were almost 
as severe as the colonies of Massachusetts and New Haven. 
In Virginia there were severe laws against the members of 
all churches except those of the Episcopal church. Members 
of other churches were imprisoned and banished from the 
colony. The Catholics first settled Maryland and granted 
religious liberty to every one in the colony, but as soon as 
the members of the Episcopal church secured control of the 
colony, they passed severe laws against the Catholics and the 
members of other churches. With but few exceptions. Cath- 
olics were persecuted in all the colonies. Rhode Island was 
verv liberal in religious matters. Pennsvlvania established 



Institutional Life in the Culuitics 1-^1 

complete religious liberty from the very first. The members 
of all churches, including those of the Catholic church, could 
worship in this colony without the least fear of persecution. 
In 1789 the Congress of the Confederacy recommended the 
religious policy of Pennsylvania for adoption by all the states. 
After the Revolution there was complete religious liberty in 
all the states, and no public money whatever has since been 
used for the support of any church. 

IV Churches Have Not Been Responsible for Religious 
Persecution 

It is but natural that people to-day should condemn,, 
severely, the religious persecutions referred to above. But 
it should be remembered that the people of to-day would have 
done the same thing had they lived in those times. Neither 
can any church be held responsible for these persecutions. 
In Europe, outside of England, the Catholic church directed 
the persecutions ; in England, and in Virginia and Maryland 
the persecutions were directed by the Church of England or 
the Episcopal church ; and in New England it was done in the 
name of the Puritans or Congregational church. In fact, 
up to about two hundred and fifty years ago, the leading or 
state religion of almost every nation during the past twenty- 
five hundred years has persecuted and killed those who did 
not agree with it on religious questions. It may be said 
that religious persecutions have been due to the fact that the 
great mass of the people were not as well educated nor as 
highly civilized as they are at the present time. It has been 
true in the history of the world, that when a large number of 
the people in a nation became fairly well educated they have 
demanded political liberty, that is, the right to make the 
laws which they must obey. When the people of a nation 
have secured the right to make their own laws, they have 
usually become more liberal in religious matters. This tends 
to prove that religious liberty in a nation follows closely 
general education and political liberty, and that it does not 



132 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

depend on the attitude of any church. Man by nature is 
narrow and unjust in reUgious matters, and it has required 
long centuries of education and civiHzation to make him 
broad and Hberal along these lines. 

V Religious Liberty in the United States : Causes of its 
Growth 

The United States was one of the first nations to establish 
complete religious liberty. At the beginning of the Revolu- 
tion most of the colonies had already established religious 
liberty and the Revolution swept away the last vestige of 
religious persecution. One of the main things that caused 
the growth of religious liberty in the colonies was the es- 
tablishment of public schools. For centuries the churches of 
the leading religion of a nation had control of education. 
This was also true in early Virginia and most of New Eng- 
land, but gradually in nearly all the colonies, the govern- 
ment took control of education. This made education more 
general and of a higher grade. It also prevented any church 
from using any public money to establish schools in which 
children were taught its own doctrines. In a republic like 
the United States a free public school system which shall not 
be under the control of any church and in the schools of 
which the doctrines of no church shall be taught must be 
maintained. The churches may, and most of them do, main- 
tain private schools, but the American people insist, and 
wisely, that they shall not control, in any way, the free public 
school system. Another thing that helped to cause the rapid 
growth of religious liberty in the colonies, was the separation 
of Church and State. In the colonies of Massachusetts and 
New Haven, the church and state were united at first, and 
in Virginia and several of the other southern colonies, public 
money was used for the support of the church. But the Puri- 
tan church was soon separated from the government in New 
England, and while the Episcopal church in Virginia re- 
ceived public money until about the time of the Revolution, 



Institutiotial Life in the Colonies 133 

it had little or no control of the government of that colony. 
This separation of church and state helped the growth of re- 
ligious liberty because when a church loses control of the 
government it is placed on an equal footing with all the other 
churches, and has no power to persecute anyone. This is as 
it should be. Religion is a question that each person must 
settle for himself — it is a question between each person and 
the Supreme Being. The churches should have no control 
whatever over the government or over the free public school 
system, and no church or person should interfere with, or 
persecute, any one because of his religious ideas. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Religion) 

I 
What is meant by religious liberty? Describe religious liberty as it 
exists in the United States at the present time. 

II 
Compare the condition of religious liberty in the United States today 
with its condition in Europe about the time the colonies were settled. 

Ill 

Did the Puritans come to America for the purpose of establishing 
religious liberty? Tell all you can about the persecution of people in New 
England on account of their religious belief. Describe the laws made in 
the various colonies against certain churches. Describe the religious con- 
ditions in Rhode Island and in Pennsylvania. 

IV 

To what conditions are religious persecutions due? What is the re- 
lation between political and religious liberty? How are general education 
and political liberty related? 

V 

How did the establishment of public schools aid the growth of re- 
ligious liberty in the United States? What is meant by the separation 
of church and state? How did the separation of church and state affect 
the growth of religious liberty in the colonies? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the condition of religious liberty in Europe about the time 
the colonies were settled. Discuss the condition of religious liberty in the 
colonies. Discuss the growth of religious liberty in the United States. 
Discuss the causes of religious persecution. 



134 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

EDUCATION 

I Comparison of Colonial Schools with Those of the 

Present Time 

Very few of the boys and girls who are now attending the 
pubHc schools in the United States realize what a great ad- 
vantage they have over those who went to school fifty or even 
twenty-five years ago. The primary, the grammar and the 
high schools have improved wonderfully during the past 
twenty-five years. Eighty-five years ago there were very 
few free public schools in the United States, and they did 
very poor work as compared with those of to-day. The av- 
erage high school now is doing as good work and is offering 
as high grade courses of study as were Harvard and Yale 
Colleges in 1800, and this was one hundred seventy years 
after Boston was founded, and one hundred sixty-four 
years after Harvard College was founded. It has been 
said by one writer that the grammar schools to-day are doing 
as good work as did William and Mary College in Virginia 
one hundred twenty-seven years ago, at the beginning 
of the Revolution. For one hundred fifty years after Vir- 
ginia and New England were first settled there were prac- 
tically no public schools of any kind in any of the southern 
colonies. While it is true that soon after they were founded 
all the New England colonies except Rhode Island passed 
laws which compelled every town with fifty or more families 
to maintain a public school of some kind, these laws were not 
always enforced. From the very first, however, there were 
a number of schools in New England, and in matters of edu- 
cation she was far ahead of all the other colonies. Nearly 
everybody in New England could read and write, but a rna- 
jority of the children were taught at home. 

II Condition of Schools in England 

The free public school system of England was not estab- 
lished until 1870, thirty-three years ago. When the colonies 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 135 

were first settled, and for a long time afterwards, educa- 
tion in England, as compared with that of to-day, was in a 
most wretched condition. In 1700 more than half of the 
English people could not read or write their own names, 
and as late as thirty years ago (1873) twenty out of every 
hundred could not. When the English colonies in America 
were founded, there were no public schools in England. 
There were a number of church and other private schools, 
but the great mass of the boys and girls did not attend these. 
Therefore when the Englishmen who founded the colonies 
left the mother country, there were no public schools, and 
education was controlled by the church and by private in- 
dividuals. It is but natural that these men, when they set- 
tled in the New World, should follow the same plan of edu- 
cation. New conditions in the colonies caused this plan to 
be changed somewhat. In the southern colonies the change 
was for the worse ; in the New England and in some of the 
middle colonies the change was for the better. 

Ill The Southern Colonies 

When the colonies were settled it was but natural that 
educational affairs should be left to the church as they had 
been in England. As the ability of the ministers was, as a 
rule, poor, educational affairs were much worse in the south- 
ern colonies than in England. Other causes of the poor con- 
dition of education in the southern colonies were the manner 
of living and the opposition of the royal governors to any 
system of education. The plantation life hindered the build- 
ing up of towns or schools, and education was restricted 
largely to the upper class. The children of the wealthy 
studied under tutors, and the sons often finished their educa- 
tion abroad. The royal governors opposed general educa- 
tion on the ground that it would make the people discontented 
and hard to govern. There were few schools in any of the 
southern colonies, those few being established by private in- 
dividuals or the churches. Maryland was the only one that 



136 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

made any real effort to establish schools that should 
be controlled by civil power. A college was established 
in 1692 by royal charter from King William and Queen 
Mary and given their names. The work done by this college 
before the Revolution was no better than that done to-day 
in the grammar schools, but it was the only college in the 
southern colonies before the Revolution. 

IV New England 

The church and the ministers determined the kind and 
character of education in New England, just as they had in 
the southern colonies. The ministers of New England were 
of the ablest class in the colonies, well educated, earnest and 
upright. The Puritan religion demanded that every man and 
woman should read and understand the Bible and it there- 
fore became the duty of the ministers to see to it that all the 
people should receive enough education to enable them to do 
this. As early as 1647 Massachusetts Bay Colony had a law 
providing that every town containing fifty or more families 
should maintain a school. This is the first instance in modern 
history that the civil power of any colony, state or nation 
provided for a public school system. The passage of this 
law was due to the Puritan religion and to the Puritan min- 
isters. Other laws were passed regarding the establishment 
of schools in all the New England colonies and thus the 
foundation of our present public school system was laid. The 
New England colonies also laid the foundation for some of 
the greatest universities in the United States. Harvard, 
Yale, Dartmouth and Brown Colleges were all established 
during the colonial period. 

V The Middle Colonies 

In the matter of education the middle colonies were be- 
hind New England and ahead of the southern colonies. In 
New York a number of fairly good schools was established 
and partly supported by the government. In New Jersey 



Institutional Life in the Colonies l•i^ 

there were a few good schools maintained by the towns or the 
Presbyterian church. Outside of Philadelphia, education in 
Pennsylvania and Delaware was in a very poor condition. 
From the first, Philadelphia maintained schools with only a 
small tuition fee. It was one of the most progressive cities 
in the colonies in all matters of education and learning. 
Franklin was her leading citizen and the greatest scholar 
in the colonies. It was due to his efforts that the University 
of Pennsylvania which ranked first among all colonial col- 
leges was founded. Princeton and Kings (Columbia) Col- 
leges were also founded during this period. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Education) 

I 

Compare briefly the conditions of the schools of the colonies with 
those of today. 

II 

What was the condition of England in regard to schools and general 
education at the time the colonies were settled? Describe the school 
system of England at that time. What was the influence of educational 
conditions in England on those in the colonies? 

Ill 

How did the character of the ministers influence educational con- 
ditions in the South? What was the effect of plantation life upon the 
building up of schools? What was the attitude of the royal governors 
toward general education, and what was its effect? How were the sons 
of the rich planters educated? Tell what you can of the founding of the 
College of William and Mary. 

IV 

What was the influence of the character of the ministers upon edu- 
cation in New England? How did the Puritan religion serve to encourage 
education? Tell what you can of the first laws establishing public schools 
in America. Describe the founding of colleges in the New England colo- 
nies. Tell what you can of the customs and studies in these colleges. 

V 

How did the middle colonies compare with New England and with 
the southern colonies in the matter of education? Tell what vou can 



138 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

of the support given by the government to schools in the middle colonies. 
Describe the educational work of the churches. How did the general 
education of the people of the middle colonies compare with that of the 
people of New England? Tell what you can of the schools of Philadelphia. 
Tell what you can of the work of Franklin in advancing education. Com- 
pare the colleges of the middle colonies with those of New England. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the educational conditions in England at the time of the found- 
ing of the colonies. Discuss the influence of the ministry upon education 
in the colonies. Discuss the origin of the public school system. Compare 
New England, the southern and the middle colonies in respect to general 
education. Why was New England ahead of the other colonies in the 
matter of education? Discuss the colleges of the colonies. Compare in 
a general way educational conditions in the colonies with educational 
conditions in the United States at the present time. 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

A CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS 

I English Control of Colonial Commerce 

Mc. io8; T. 107-109; M. 152-153; F. 181-183 

II Taxation without Representation 

Mc. 110-112, 1 1 5-1 16; T. 109-110; M. 153-154; F. 
184, 188 

1. The Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Congress, i/6j 

Mc. 112-115; H. II, 153-162; T. 110-114; M. 
154-155; F- 188-191 

2. The Declaratory Act, iy66: The Townshoid Acts, 

1767 
Mc. 1 17-120; H. II, 162-166; T. 1 14-123; M. 
155-158; F. 191-203 

III Committees of Correspondence, 1772 

Mc. 121 ; T. 120-121 ; M. 159; F. 199-200 

IV The Repressive or Intolerable Acts, 1774 

Mc. 120; T. 123-126; M. 158; F. 203 

V The First Continental Congress, 1774 

Mc. 121-122; H. II, 168-169, 204; T. 125-127; M. 
159-160; F. 203-204 

VI Preparation by the Colonists 

H. II, 191-196; T. 127; M. 160 

VII Concord and Lexington, 1775 

Mc. 126-128; H. II, 257-260; T. 128-129; ^I- 160- 
162 ; F. 204-205 

VIII Siege and Capture of Boston, i 775-1 776 

Mc. 129-131 ; H. II, 208-209, 261-266; T. 131-134: 
M. 162-166; F. 205-209 



140 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

IX Declaration of Independence, 1776 

Mc. 131-135. Appendix, 1-4; H. II. 172-175; T. 134- 
139; M. 167-168; F. 209-210 

X Comparison of Resources of England and America 

T. 132; F. 216 

B CAMPAIGNS 

I The Campaign to Separate New England from the 

Other States, and the Campaign Against Phil- 
adelphia AND the Middle States 
Mc. 135-143, 146-149; H. II, 191-292; T. 139-160; 
M. 169-182; F. 216-234 

II Campaign Against the Southern States 

Mc. 143-146; H. II, 307-309; T. 160-165; M. 181- 
188; F. 234-241 

C RESULTS OF THE WAR 

Mc. 149-152; T. 165-166; M. 188-189; F. 247 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

At the close of the French and Indian War in 1763, the English 
colonists in America were loyal English subjects. They were 
proud of their English origin ; proud of English history, consider- 
ing it part of their own inheritance. England had no more loyal 
subjects than the Americans. They had confidence in her govern- 
ment, and with reverence called her the Mother Country. 
Although there had been continual disagreements between the col- 
onists and the officers in America appointed by the king, all these 
disputes had been local, and had not materially affected the loy- 
alty of the colonists to England. In less than fifteen years from 
this time, these same colonists were in open rebellion, carrying on 
war against England. There were vital and far reaching causes 
which brought about this change of feeling, and these were the 
causes which led to the Revolution. 

CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS ; ' 

I English Control of Colonial Commerce 

Up to the time of the American Revolution the prevailing 
idea regarding colonies was that they were planted and ex- 
isted for the benefit of the home country, especially in respect 
to trade. In order to control the commerce of her colonies, 
England passed trade laws known as the Navigation Acts, 
and these were fundamentally connected with the causes of 
the Revolution. These laws extended from 165 1 down to the 
Revolution. Their object was to secure to English mer- 
chants a monopoly of the carrying trade of England and her 
colonies. In some cases small duties were levied on exports 
and imports, but these duties were levied mainly in order to 
secure the better enforcement of the Navigation Acts, and 
not in order to raise money for the English government. The 
laws regulating colonial commerce were not rigidly enforced 
in America until after the French and Indian War. Although 
the colonists were irritated by these laws, they did not offer 



142 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

any serious objection to them until Writs of Assistance were 
issued, enabling- English officers to enter private houses and 
search for smuggled goods. Tliese writs of assistance 
were search warrants and were so general in nature that they 
could be tyrannically used for personal and malicious ends, 
and their issuance caused bitter feeling. 

II Taxation Without Representation 

There was no central government in America which had 
the power to provide for the defense of all the colonies by 
raising soldiers and by levying taxes. It was very plain 
.that this country would need to be protected and the British 
government decided to place an army in the colonies for 
their defense to be partly supported by the colonists by means 
of a tax. Parliament levied this tax itself on specific articles 
instead of allowing the colonists to tax themselves to raise 
the necessary amount. The colonists had no representative 
in ParHament. They would probably have submitted to 
the Navigation Acts and to the nominal taxes which some of 
them imposed. They would not, however, pay taxes levied 
for the purpose of revenue, and especially direct taxes, unless 
they had some voice in voting such taxation. They did not 
object to the amount of the tax, but to the principle involved. 
Englishmen, by more than a century of struggle, had secured 
the right to vote taxes through their representatives. The 
colonists considered themselves Englishmen with all the 
rights of Englishmen, and hence they refused to submit to 
taxation without representation. In other words, the Revo- 
lution was brought about because Englishmen in America 
were denied the rights enjoyed by Englishmen in England. 
It should be remembered that these rights were denied the 
colonists in America, not by the people of England, but by the 
King and his ministers. The common people and the best 
statesmen of England, like the colonists, were opposed to 
the levying of taxes where the people taxed had no voice 
in the voting of them. \\'illiam Pitt was one of the Ensrlish 



Causes and Beginnings 143 

statesmen who saw that the Americans were contending for 
a principle, and when he became Prime Minister, he opposed 
the levying of direct taxes on the colonists. He was glad 
that the colonists resisted the unjust taxation because he 
believed that if the king could unjustly tax the colonies, 
he might attempt to overthrow the constitutional liberties of 
England. 

1. The Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Congress, I/65 

The Stamp Act passed in 1765 was the first attempt of 
the English Parliament to levy internal taxes on the colo- 
nies, and the colonists strongly resented it as an infringe- 
ment of their rights. This tax was put in the form of 
stamps to be placed on legal documents and printed papers 
and pamphlets, parliament considering this the easiest 
way of raising a tax, and the least likely to cause trouble. 
Virginia led the opposition of the colonies by passing a 
set of resolutions against taxation without representation. 
The colonies sent to the king and parliament many peti- 
tions against the Stamp Act. This feeling of opposition 
led to the calling of a congress composed of delegates 
from the different colonies for the purpose of drawing up 
a united remonstrance against the act. Nine of the colonies 
sent delegates, and this congress drew up and signed a 
" Declaration of Rights and Grievances." This was the 
first time that the colonies acted in unity. 

2. The Declaratory Act, i'j66; The Tozimshend Acts, 1/6/ 

When Parliament was forced, partly by the opposition of 
leading English statesmen and partly by the protests of 
English merchants who suffered from the conditions in 
America, to repeal the Stamp Act, it passed at the same 
time what is called the Declaratory Act, which asserted the 
right of Parliament to legislate for the colonies on all 
questions. In the following year a series of acts known as 
the Townshend Acts were passed which asserted the right 



144 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

of Parliament to tax the colonists, and levied import duties 
on certain articles of common use. The opposition of the 
colonists to these acts was so violent that all except one 
were repealed. The tax on tea was retained merely to assert 
the authority of Parliament in regard to taxation. It was 
just this principle that the colonists were standing for, 
and they refused to pay even this tax. The tea sent over 
was, in most cases, not allowed to be landed, and in some 
cases it was destroyed. At Boston a body of men boarded 
a tea ship in the harbor and threw the tea into the ocean. 
This is known as the Boston Tea Party. 

III Committees of Correspondence, 1772 

The royal governors were alarmed and angered at the stand 
taken by the colonists, and in 1772 the governor of Massa- 
chusetts dissolved its legislature in order to prevent united 
action by the colony. Through the efforts of Samuel Adams, 
committees were at once appointed by the various towns 
in order that there might be united action, and to look after 
the interests of the colony. Soon events led Virginia to 
appoint a permanent Committee of Correspondence to com- 
municate with the other colonies regarding their general 
welfare and plans of action. Within a year similar Com- 
mittees of Correspondence had been appointed in all of the 
colonies. The work of these committees was very important 
as it prepared the Americans for united action in the struggle 
which was to follow. 

IV The Repressive or Intolerable Acts, 1774 

The action of the colonists regarding the tea tax angered 
the king and Parliament, and a series of acts were passed for 
the purpose of punishing Massachusetts. The first of these 
acts, known as the Boston Port Bill, provided for the closing 
of the port of Boston, and the third act, which annulled the 
charter of Massachusetts and provided for a military gover- 
nor with arbitrary power, were especially tyrannical. These 



C"«!/^i'^ and Beginnings 145 

acts served to rouse the people of all the colonies to the 
danger their liberties were in, and to prepare their minds for 
rebellion. 

V The First Continental Congress, 1774 

The passing of the Repressive Acts led directly to the call- 
ing of a congress of delegates by the colonies. This 
congress was a direct outgrowth of the Correspondence Com- 
mittees, and it marked an advance step. It contained dele- 
gates from all the colonies except Georgia, and thus repre- 
sented the feeling of the colonies as a whole. It met with the 
definite purpose of obtaining a redress of grievances and 
had as members most of the ablest men in America. In 
addition to drawing up a Declaration of Rights, and issuing 
addresses to Englishmen, to Americans, and to the king, 
asking for the protection of these rights, this Congress 
decided upon a definite plan of action by all the colonies, 
and made provision for effectively carrying out these plans. 

VI Preparation by the Colonists 

When the petitions of the Continental Congress were 
ignored by the king and by Parliament, and Gage was sent 
over as military governor of Massachusetts, the colonists 
began active preparations for war. Arms and provisions 
were collected and volunteer soldiers were enrolled and 
drilled in the various colonies. Patriotic societies were 
formed among both men and women for the purpose of 
resisting the attacks on English rights in America. 

VII Concord and Lexington, 1775 

An attempt by Gage to seize supplies stored by the colo- 
nists at Concord resulted in the first bloodshed of the war. 
While the number lost was small on both sides, these two 
engagements inflamed the colonists as no merely political 
act could have done. 



146 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

VIII Siege and Capture of Boston, i 775-1776 

After the battles of Concord and Lexington the British 
under Gage were shut up in Boston by colonial soldiers. The 
Continental Congress assumed control of the troops besieg- 
ing Boston, made Washington commander-in-chief, and took 
measures to obtain more men for the continental army, as it 
was now called. The battle of Bunker Hill was the most 
important engagement of this siege. While the British were 
victorious their victory was dearly bought. In substance 
it was a victory for the Americans as it gave them con- 
fidence in their ability to resist English arms. After a siege 
of nearly a year, the British were compelled to evacuate 
Boston. During this time the fortress of Ticonderoga and 
the small fort of Crown Point had been taken by colonial 
soldiers, and an unsuccessful expedition had been sent into 
Canada. 

IX Declaration of Independence, 1776 

The action of the king in rejecting all petitions, in declar- 
ing the colonists rebels, and in hiring foreign troops to put 
down the rebellion, led the colonists to decide upon complete 
independence of Great Britain. The formation of state 
governments, and the publication of numerous patriotic 
writings aided the colonists in reaching this conclusion. A 
resolution affirming the independence of the colonies was 
passed by the Continental Congress on July 2nd, 1776, and 
two days later the Declaration of Independence was adopted. 

X Comparison of Resources of England and America 

England had great advantages over the colonists in respect 
to wealth and population, but these were ofifset to some extent 
by the distance of the colonies from England, and by the 
hostility of other European nations to Great Britain. Both 
England and America suffered from lack of unity in the 
support of the war, but England suffered the more, for 



Causes and Beginning's 147 

while there were many in America who sympathized with 
the EngHsh and even aided them, in England the leading 
statesmen strongly opposed the war from the beginning to 
the end. The colonies' greatest weakness lay in their lack 
of a strong central government with power to raise money 
and soldiers and to conduct the war with vigor. While 
England could obtain almost any amount of military sup- 
plies and troops, the Americans had great difficulty in these 
respects. On the other hand, the Americans had an advan- 
tage in the superiority of their commanders, and in the 
patriotic spirit of their army. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Causes and Beginnings of the Revolution) 

What was the attitude of the colonists toward England at the end of 
the French and Indian war? 

I 
What was the general idea regarding the relations of colonies to their 
home countries before the American Revolution? What were the Naviga- 
tion Acts and why were they passed? Why did the colonists not ser- 
iously object to these laws? Describe Writs of Assistance and tell why 
the colonists objected to them. 

II 

Why did the British Parliament levy a tax on the colonists after the 
close of the French and Indian war? Was such a tax necessary? Why 
did the colonists oppose it? What is meant by taxation without repre- 
sentation? Why did the colonists value so highly the right of taxation? 
How did the common people as well as the leading statesmen of England 
regard taxation without representation? Why did the king and his min- 
isters insist upon taxing the colonies without their consent? What was 
the Stamp Act, and how was it regarded by the colonists? Describe the 
action of Virginia against this tax. What action was taken by the other 
colonies? Tell what you can of the Stamp Act Congress, discussing its 
origin, composition and work. Describe the way in which the stamp- 
distributors and the stamped paper were treated by the people. Why did 
the Stamp Act never go into effect? Why did the English merchants wish 
to have the Stamp Act repealed? Why did Parliament repeal the Act? 
What was the Declaratory Act and why was it passed? Describe the Town- 
shend Acts. How were they received by the colonists? What effect did 



148 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

the opposition of the colonists have? Why was the tax on tea retained? 
Why did the colonists refuse to buy the tea? How was the tea received 
by the colonists ? Tell the story of the Boston Tea Party. 

Ill 

What brought about the forming of local committees of correspond- 
ence, and what was their purpose? Tell what you can of the work of 
Samuel Adams in organizing these committees. What led to the organiz- 
ing of permanent Committees of Correspondence in all the colonies ? What 
was the value of these Committees? 

IV 
Describe each of the Repressive or Intolerable acts. Why were they 
called the "Intolerable Acts"? What was the object of the King and Par- 
liament in passing these acts? What effect did the enforcement of these 
acts have on the colonies? 

V 
Discuss the growth of colonial union — that is the growth of unity of 
action among the colonies. Explain the events that led to the calling of 
the First Continental Congress. Discuss the composition and work of 
this Congress. 

VI 

What led the colonies to make active preparations for war? Describe 
these preparations. Who were the minute men? 

VII 

Tell all you can about the battles of Lexington and Concord. What was 
the effect of these battles upon the colonists? 

VIII 
Tell what you can about the siege of Boston. Describe the Battle of 
Bunker Hill. What was the effect of this battle? (Each pupil should 
draw a map of the neighborhood of Boston showing the position of the 
British and the colonial troops during the siege of Boston and in the 
Battle of Bunker Hill.) Describe the capture of forts Ticonderoga and 
Crown Point. Describe Washington's taking charge of the army and his 
work in organizing it. 

IX 

Describe the petitions sent by the colonists to the king after the cap- 
ture of Boston. What do they show as to the feeling of the colonists to- 
ward England ? What actions of the king's caused the people to desire 
to become independent of Great Britain? Why did King George hire for- 



Causes and Beginnings 149 

eign soldiers to fight in America? How was this regarded in Europe and 
in America? Tell what you can of the patriotic writings of Thomas 
Paine and their effect upon the people. When and why were state gov- 
ernments formed? How did the formation of these governments aid 
in the growth of the desire for independence? Describe the passing of the 
Declaration of Independence. What was the nature of the Declaration? 
How was it received by the Americans? 

X 

How was opinion in England divided regarding this war? What was 
the attitude of the other nations of Europe toward England? Were the 
Americans united in favor of the war? How did the United States com- 
pare with England in wealth ? What was the source of its greatest weak- 
ness? In what respects had the United States the advantage of England 
in this war? 



150 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

CAMPAIGNS 
After the English under Gage sailed away from Boston on 
March 17, 1776, they made no further attempt during the war to 
invade and subdue New England. Neither did they make any 
serious attempt during the war to invade and subdue Virginia. 
Virginia and New England each contained about 700,000 people, 
which made their combined population about equal to that of all 
the other states. The people of Virginia and New England were 
united and aggressive in their opposition to England. Lexington, 
Concord and the siege of Boston had taught the British that an 
invasion of New England meant the stout and active resistance 
of almost every man. They knew that the people of Virginia 
were just as united and determined as those of New England, 
and that an invasion of that state, the home of Washington, 
would meet with the same strong resistance. The British 
decided, therefore, to leave New England and Virginia, with 
their large and hostile populations, alone, and to try to subdue the 
other states which contained fewer people and in which they 
hoped to find many people friendly to them. They thought that 
if they could get control of most of the other states, Virginia 
and New England would be compelled to submit. After the 
capture of Boston by Washington, the king and his ministers 
and generals, therefore, planned three general campaigns — two 
against the middle states and one against the far southern states. 
One was to capture Ncav York City, and to secure control of the 
Hudson river and of as much of the state of New York as pos- 
sible. The success of this campaign would have been of great 
value to the British, because it would have given them control 
of a direct line of communication between New York City and 
Canada, and as the English had control of the sea, this would 
have completely separated New England from all the other states. 
The object of the other campaign against the middle states was to 
capture Philadelphia, the largest city in America, and to secure 
control of as much of Pennsylvania and New Jersey as possible. 
By the southern campaign the British hoped to capture the 
cities of Charleston and Savannah, and to secure control of 
Georgia, South Carolina and North Carolina. 



The Campaign to Separate New England from the 
Other States, and the Campaign Against Phila- 
delphia AND the Middle States 

These two campaigns were carried on at the same time. 
They extended over two years and ended in failure. They 
began in July, 1776, when a British army of 25,000 men under 
General Howe and a large British fleet under his brother. 
Admiral Howe, arrived at Staten Island from Halifax. They 
ended in June, 1778, when the British evacuated Philadel- 
phia and concentrated all their northern forces in New York 
city. New York city was captured by the British in August, 
1776, and was used as the basis of operations for both these 
campaigns, and also for the southern campaign. It was the 
last city evacuated by the British at the end of the war. As 
a result of three months' fighting, Howe had captured New 
York city and had slowly driven Washington a short dis- 
tance up the Hudson, but the American army was about as 
large and as well prepared for battle as when the fighting 
began, although it was much smaller than the British army 
under Howe. In a short time, however, the meddling of 
Congress and the treachery of Lee compelled Washington 
with but a small part of his force to make a hurried retreat 
across New Jersey into Pennsylvania. Then in this darkest 
hour of the war came the capture of Trenton and his bril- 
liant work which compelled the British to withdraw from 
nearly all New Jersey. As a result of four months' fighting 
the British held New York city and a few outlying posts. 
The attempt of General Carleton to march down the Hudson 
from Canada, join Howe at New York city and thus separate 
New England from the middle states, was a complete failure. 

In the spring of 1777 the British renewed their cam- 
paigns for the capture of Philadelphia and for the separation 
of New England from the other states. Burgoyne with an 
army of 8,000 men was to capture the Fortress of Ticon- 
deroga and march down the Hudson. St. Leger with a force 
of about 2,000 men was to capture Oswego on the east shore 



152 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

of Lake Ontario and march across New York to the Hudson 
and join Burgoyne. Howe with some 18,000 men was to 
move up the Hudson and meet Burgoyne. Before doing this 
he decided to capture Philadelphia. This proved to be a mis- 
take. He succeeded in capturing Philadelphia, but the ex- 
cellent generalship of Washington compelled him to consume 
about four months in doing this and it was then too late 
to assist Burgoyne. On October 17 — a few days after Howe 
entered Philadelphia — Burgoyne was forced to surrender 
at Saratoga on the upper Hudson. The capture of Phila- 
delphia was of but little value to the British, for they were 
able to hold only as much territory as was actually occupied 
by their troops, while the surrender of Burgoyne was a great 
injury. As a result of this surrender, France soon made an 
alliance with America. This compelled the British to 
evacuate Philadelphia in the spring of 1778. On its march 
from Philadelphia to New York City the British army was 
attacked by Washington at Monmouth, and had it not been 
for the treachery of Lee, this battle would have resulted in 
a serious disaster to the English. The British now concen- 
trated all their northern forces in New York city. Thus the 
two northern campaigns of the British ended in failure. 
In the fall of 1778 the British began their southern campaign, 
which was the third and last one and which was also to end 
in failure. 

After the battle of Monmouth the British made no further 
real attempt to carry on the war in the North, but con- 
fined their operations to sending out marauding expeditions 
and to stirring up the Indians on the frontiers. The more 
important events in the North during the remainder of the 
war were the storming of Stony Point by the Americans, 
the treason of Arnold, and the total defeat of the Iirdians by 
Clark and Sullivan. The brilliant work of Paul Jones and 
of the American privateers is also worthy of special notice 
during this latter period of the war. 



Results 153 

II Campaign Against the Southern Colonies 

From an English standpoint this campaign was, for a time, 
successful. Savannah was captured, and Georgia and part 
of South Carolina were overrun. Several American armies 
were utterly destroyed. But when the inefficient Gates was 
superseded by Greene, the tide turned in favor of the Ameri- 
cans. At King's Mountain and at the Cowpens small Brit- 
ish forces were entirely destroyed. The indecisive battle of 
Guilford Courthouse so weakened the British army that 
Cornwallis, with Greene in pursviit, retreated to Wilmington^ 
North Carolina. With the exception of Charleston and 
Savannah, Greene soon forced the British to evacuate all of 
South Carolina and Georgia. Meanwhile Cornwallis marched 
north and fortified Yorktown. Here he was attacked by the 
combined French and American forces and compelled to 
surrender, October 19, 1781. Cornwallis's surrender prac- 
tically ended the war. 

Results of the War 

As the news of the surrender at Yorktown spread through the 
states, the people gave themselves over to general rejoicing. 
There were bonfires in almost every village, for the people knew 
that the surrender of Cornwallis, following, as it did, Greene's 
great campaign in the south, ended the war. When the news 
reached Paris, flags were flung to the breeze, nearly all the houses 
were illuminated, and the French, like the Americans, gave them- 
selves up to general rejoicing. When Lord North heard the 
news he walked the floor of his room in great excitement exclaim- 
ing, " My God, it is all over, it is all over, it is all over! " When 
Charles Fox, one of the leaders of the House of Commons, heard 
it, he sprang from his chair with a shout of joy. Many of the 
leading statesmen of England were equally as glad as Fox that 
Cornwallis had been captured. Lord North, who had been prime 
minister since 1770, was soon forced by the House of Commons 
to resign and the king was forced to appoint in his place the 
leader of the Whig party that had always been friendly to the 



154 ■ THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Americans and opposed to the war. The fall of Lord North 
marked the end of the king's personal rule in England. Never 
since then has a king of England attempted to rule. The people, 
through the House of Commons, have controlled the government 
and made the laws and the king has simply reigned. The sur- 
render at Yorktown, therefore, was a glorious victory for English- 
men as well as for Americans. The Americans had fought to 
uphold the liberties of Englishmen, just as their ancestors in 
England had often done in the years gone by. On September 
3rd, 1783, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris, which ended the 
war between England on one side and France, Spain and the 
United States on the other. The new nation secured the terri- 
tory extending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and from the 
Great Lakes to Florida ; England secured the right to navigate 
the Mississippi, and the Americans obtained the right to fish on 
the Newfoundland Banks ; the republican spirit received a 
remarkable stimulus throughout the world. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 

(Campaigns of the Revolution) 

I 

In what way did the battles of Lexington and Concord, and the siege 
of Boston influence the British plans of campaigns? Describe the three 
general campaigns adopted by the British after the siege of Boston. What 
was the object of each? Describe the capture of New York city by the 
British. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the battles around 
New York city.) Explain how the disobedience of Lee after the surren- 
der of Fort Washington injured the American cause. In what way was 
Lee captured by the English? Describe the retreat of Washington through 
New Jersey. Describe the capture of Trenton by Washington. Explain 
how Washington soon after the capture of Trenton succeeded in com- 
pelling the British to give up nearly all of New Jersey. (Each pupil 
should draw a map illustrating the work of Washington from the time 
he began his retreat across New Jersey until he went into winter quarters 
at Morristown.) Describe the invasion of Canada by Montgomery and 
Arnold. 

What two campaigns did the British renew in the spring of 1777? 
Describe the campaign which resulted in the capture of Philadelphia by 
the British. (Each pupil should draw a map fully illustrating the cam- 



Results 155 

paign which resuhed in the capture of Philadelphia, and also the battles 
which followed immediately after its capture.) In what way did Wash- 
ington's work in this campaign assist in the capture of Burgoyne and his 
army? Describe fully the conditions and battles which led to the sur- 
render of Burgoyne. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the 
campaign which resulted in the surrender of Burgoyne.) 

What efifect did Burgoyne's surrender have on the English govern- 
ment? What effect did it have on the Americans? Plow did it assist in 
bringing about an alliance between France and America? How did the 
results of this alliance in Europe assist the Americans? How did this 
alliance affect the policy of the English government toward America? Why 
would not the Americans accept the liberal terms offered by the English 
government ? 

Describe the condition of the American army at Valley Forge. Why 
did the British leave Philadelphia in June, 1778? Describe the battle of 
Monmouth. Describe the storming of Stony Point. Discuss the treason 
of Arnold. After the battle of Monmouth why did the British army give 
up all the country in the middle and New England states except the City 
of New York and the country close around that city? What did the 
British hope to gain by stirring up the Indians on the frontiers of Penn- 
sylvania and New York? Describe how Clark and Sullivan completely 
defeated the Indians. Describe the work of the American navy and 
privateers. 

II 

Describe the attempt of the English to capture Charleston in 1776. 
Why did the British not renew the campaign against the South until af- 
ter 1778 when their two northern campaigns had practically failed? De- 
scribe the southern campaign from the capture of Savannah in the latter 
part of 1778 to the capture of Charleston in 1780. Describe the work of the 
Americans under such southern leaders as ]\Iarion, Sumpter, Pickens and 
Williams. Describe the campaign of Gates that resulted in his defeat at 
Camden. 

Give a full discussion of Greene's southern campaign. What was the 
importance of this campaign? (Each pupil should draw a map illus- 
trating these southern campaigns.) 

Give a full description of the campaign which led to the surrender 
of Cornwallis. How was the news of this surrender received in America, 
France and England? What effect did it have on the war? 

When and where was the treaty of peace signed that ended the Revo- 
lution? What territory did this treaty give to the United States? Discuss 
some of the other provisions of this treaty that effected the United States. 
Why was the success of the Americans in this war a great victory for 
Englishmen as well as for Americans? 



156 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the causes of the American Revolution. Discuss the first 
period of the Revolution. (This period ended with the evacuation of 
Boston by the British.) Discuss the principles for which the Americans 
were fighting during this first period. Discuss the campaigns against the 
middle states. Discuss the campaign which had for its object the separa- 
tion of New England from the middle states. Discuss the campaign 
against the southern states. Discuss the campaign which led to the sur- 
render of Cornwallis. Discuss the effect of the Revolution on political 
liberty in America and in Europe. 



EIGHTH YEAR WORK 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

I The Nature of the National Government 

Mc. 128-129, 155-159. 163; T. 131-132, i5;-i55. 168- 
170; M. 159, 162, 189; F. 203-204, 247-249, 253- 

254 

II The Northwest Territory; The Ordinance of 1787 

Mc. 160-162; T. 182-183; M. 190-191 ; F. 251-252 

III Conditions of Money and Business 

Mc. 163-165, 198-200; H. II, 218-220; T. 154-158; 
M. 173-174, 189-190; F. 248-250 

IV Anarchy and Rebellion 

Mc. 164; T. 170-171 ; M. 190; F. 247-251 

V The Constitutional Convention 

1. Events Leading to the Convention 

Mc. 165; T. 171-172; F. 252-253 

2. Organization of the Convention: Character of Mem- 

bers 
Mc. 166 ; T. 172-173 ; M. 192 ; F. 255 

3. Making the Constitution — The Three Great Com- 

promises 
Mc. 167; T. 173-174; M. 192, Note 3 

VI The Constitution 

1. Legislative Department 

Mc. 169, 197; T. 177-178; F. 254 

2. Executive Department 

Mc. 168, 198; T. 178-179 



160 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

3. Judicial Department 

Mc. 169, 197; T. 179; F. 254 

4. Ratification 

Mc. 169-170; T. 174-176; I\I. 193; F. 256 

VII Organization of the New Government 
Mc. 170-173; T. 181-182 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

I The Nature of the National Government 

Although the Treaty of Paris ended the war, the conditions 
in the colonies from the standpoint of both business and gov- 
ernment continued very serious indeed until the ratification 
of the Constitution in 1788. In many ways the years between 
1783 and 1789 were the most dangerous and important in the 
history of the United States. The period covered by these 
years has been aptly and fittingly called by Fiske " The Criti- 
cal Period of American History." The bad condition of 
affairs during this period was due mainly to the fact that 
there was no strong central government in the United States. 
From the beginning of the Revolution until 1781, the Conti- 
nental Congress directed and attended to the general afifairs 
of the states. There was no other form of national govern- 
ment. This Congress had no legal standing. It was not created 
by any constitution or law, and hence its powers and duties 
were not defined in any way. It tried to do those things 
which were necessary to carry on the war with success, but 
as it had no power to enforce its acts or laws, its efforts 
were not always successful, and as a result Washington's 
plans were often injured. It could not raise soldiers, levy 
taxes, or regulate commerce — three powers that a national 
government must have if it wishes to live and have its laws 
obeyed. All Congress could do was to ask the states to do 
certain things. It could not do them itself, neither could it 
compel the states to do them. Sometimes a state granted 
the request of Congress, and sometimes it did not. In 1781 — 
about two years before the war closed — a sort of written 
constitution went into effect. This constitution is known as 
the Articles of Confederation. It was prepared by Congress 
and submitted to the states in 1777, but not ratified by all 
the states and put into effect until 1781. This constitution 
simply put into written form and legalized the powers which 



162 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

Congress had already assumed and enjoyed. Congress was 
still the national or general government for all the states, 
and it had no more powers than it had before this written 
constitution or agreement had been adopted by the states. 
In some ways it had less power. It could not even request 
the states for soldiers or money unless a majority of the 
delegates from each of nine states voted in favor of making 
such request, whereas before. Congress could pass any meas- 
ure if but seven states voted for it. This was indeed a weak 
form of government and naturally did not secure the respect 
of the American people or of foreign governments. Even 
when the war was going on, the states often did not grant 
the requests of Congress, and after the actual pressure of war 
had been removed, each state did about as it pleased. Con- 
gress had no power to carry out its treaties and agreements 
with foreign governments, and as a result these governments, 
between 1783 and 1789, came to have less and less respect 
for the United States. The American people were to blame 
for this weak and inefficient national government. They 
were afraid that a strong central government would try to 
take away their rights as the government of England had 
tried to do. It required five hard and dangerous years after 
the end of the war to convince them that a strong central 
government was necessary to their happiness and to the 
welfare of the new nation. 

II The Northwest Territory; The Ordinance of 1787 

The most important law enacted by Congress under the 
Articles of Confederation was that known as the Ordinance of 
1787. This law provided for the organization and govern- 
ment of what was then called the Northwest Territory. This 
territory included what is now the states of Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin. During the greater part 
of the Revolution it was claimed by Virginia, Massachusetts, 
Connecticut and New York, but Maryland refused to ratify 
the Articles of Confederation until these states agreed to 
cede it to Congress, thus making it the common property 



The Nortlizccst Territory 163 

of all the states. By 1786 the states had given up their 
individual claims and this vast territory came under the 
direct control of Congress. The Ordinance of 1787 pro- 
viding for the government of this territory is very important, 
as it has been the basis of the government of all new terri- 
tory since acquired by the United States, except that acquired 
in the recent war with Spain. The more important pro- 
visions of the ordinance were those providing for the form- 
ing of new states out of this territory, and forever forbidding 
the existence of slavery in the Northwest Territory. A 
very important result of the cession of the Northwest Ter- 
ritory to Congress was that it tended to keep the states from 
separating during the critical period of our history. 

Ill Conditions of Money and Business 

The lack of good money in the United States during the 
Critical Period, and the bad condition of business caused 
great distress. No gold or silver money was made by the 
United States until 1793, and all the hard money used was 
the coin of other nations. After the Revolution nearly all 
of the hard money in the United States was paid out for 
imported goods which were much needed by the Americans 
and which were sent over in great quantities from England. 
During the Revolution Congress issued large sums of paper 
money to carry on the war, but as it soon became plain that 
Congress could never redeem this money, it very quickly 
became almost worthless. During the Critical Period there 
was a strong desire for paper money, which was issued by 
some of the states, and which, like the Continental Currency 
issued by Congress, soon became worthless. This worthless 
paper money and the lack of hard money caused conditions 
to become worse and worse. The people could not pay their 
taxes, and Congress had to borrow money for the running 
expenses of the government. Congress could not compel the 
states to comply with its request for money, and the credit 
of the United States became very poor among foreign nations. 
These bad conditions showed the need of a stronger central 



164 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

government, and this need was brought home more sharply 
to the people by the disputes among the states regarding the 
levying of import duties on one another's products, and con- 
flicting land claims. 

IV Anarchy and Rebellion 

The disputes of the states over territory led to the raising 
of troops by some of the states, and while all these disputes 
were finally settled without actual warfare, they indicated 
plainly that war between the states might break out at any 
time. The refusal of IMassachusetts to issue paper money 
led to the breaking out of an open insurrection — known as 
Shays's Rebellion — against the state authority. Some 2,000 
men took up arms, and it required more than 4,000 state 
troops to put down the insurrection. Such conditions alarmed 
all thinking people, and made them ready to sanction a central 
government that would be strong enough to protect life and 
property in all the states, and that would give peace and 
prosperity to the nation. 

V The Constitutional Convention 

I. Events Leading to the Convention 

The desirability of opening up and settling the country 
west of the Alleghanies led to a meeting of delegates from 
Maryland and Virginia at Washington's home in 1785 to 
discuss plans for improving navigation on the upper part 
of the Potomac river and for building roads in the new 
western country. During this meeting, which was held 
at Washington's suggestion, Washington suggested that 
Maryland and Virginia hold a joint convention for dis- 
cussing further the building of roads and canals, and for 
discussing uniformity of trade laws. Later it was decided 
to invite delegates from all the states to attend this conven- 
vention, but when the meeting assembled at Annapolis 
in September, 1785, it was found that only five of the states 
were represented. The delegates, therefore, did not at- 
tempt to settle any of these questions, but passed a reso- 



The Constitutional Convention 165 

lution suggesting- to all the states that they send delegates 
to a convention to be held at Philadelphia in May of the 
following year. Congress recommended to the states that 
they appoint such delegates, and all the states did so except 
Rhode Island. 

. Organisation of the Convention: Character of Members 

The Constitutional Convention is distinctly American, 
and the one that framed our National Constitution is by 
far the most important one ever held in America. It was 
composed of fifty-five members and represented all the 
states except Rhode Island. In almost every case the 
states sent their ablest men, and it is no doubt true that 
never before or since have so many able men come together 
for the purpose of discussing government. Washington, 
Franklin and Madison were the chief men in the conven- 
tion, but others were of only a little less importance. Al- 
though their work was to be very important, but few of 
the members had a definite idea of what they were to do, 
because the resolution which called the Convention simply 
stated in a general way that it was called for the purpose 
of providing a better central government for the United 
States. Washington was elected president of the Con- 
vention, and it sat with closed doors, everything being 
kept secret until its work was complete. 

Making the Constitution — The Three Great Compromises 

Some of the members of the Convention were afraid that 
the people would not ratify a constitution that provided for 
a strong central government, and they therefore suggested 
that the work of the Convention be restricted to revising 
the Articles of Confederation. It was soon decided by the 
advice of Washington and other leaders, to make a new 
constitution instead of trying to patch up the old one. Sev- 
eral plans for the new constitution were submitted to the 
convention by delegates from the various states. The 
Virginia plan, among other things, provided for a national 



166 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

legislature of two houses, the members of the lower house 
to be elected by the states according to their population or 
wealth, and those of the upper house to be elected by the 
members of the lower. * This plan would give the large 
states much more power than the small states. The New 
Jersey plan proposed that the national legislature should 
consist of one house in which all the states sho.uld have the 
same number of representatives. This would give the 
small states an advantage and the government would be 
simply a league of states as before. The matter was finally 
settled by a compromise, but not until the discussion had 
nearly broken up the Convention. It was agreed that the 
national legislature should consist of two houses. The 
lower house, called the House of Representatives, was to 
be composed of members elected directly by the people, and 
the number of members from each state was to be deter- 
mined by the number of people in that state. The upper 
house, called the Senate, was to be composed of two mem- 
bers from each state, and they were to be elected by the 
state legislatures. This was the first great compromise of 
the Convention. The next compromise was between the 
northern and southern states over the question as to 
whether the slaves should be counted as population when 
apportioning representatives to a state. The southern men 
wished to have all the slaves counted, while the northern 
members did not want any of the slaves counted as pop- 
ulation. It was compromised by agreeing to allow five 
slaves to count as three white people when estimating 
population and national taxes. The third great compro- 
mise was over the question of commerce and the importa- 
tion of slaves. All the southern states were opposed to 
giving the new government complete control of commerce. 
South Carolina and Georgia wanted the right to continue 
the importation of slaves, but nearly all the other states 
were opposed to this. Finally it was agreed that Congress 
should have complete control of commerce and that slaves 
might be imported until i< 



The Constitution 167 

VI The Constitution 

I. Legislative Department 

The new Constitution provided for a national legisla- 
ture, called the Congress of the United States, composed 
of two houses— a lower house, called the House of Rep- 
resentatives, and an upper house called the Senate. The 
members of the lower house are elected by the people for 
a term of two years. The national government therefore 
acts upon each individual citizen, while the government 
under the Articles of Confederation acted upon the states. 
This is a most important difiference, as it makes our pres- 
ent central government, a national government, while un- 
der the Articles of Confederation the government was 
simply a confederation of states. The members of the 
Senate are elected by the state legislatures for a term of 
six years. They represent the states and not the people 
directly. All the powers not granted to the national gov- 
ernment by the Constitution or prohibited to the states by 
it, still belong to the states, or the people. The Constitu- 
tion, however, gave the new government all the power 
necessary for a strong national government. 

2. Executive Department 

The Constitution created a strong executive department. 
The head of this department is called the President of the 
United States. He is Commander-in-Chief of the army 
and navy of the United States, and in addition to other 
important duties, he must defend the Constitution and 
execute the laws passed by Congress. There is also a 
vice-president elected at the same time and in the same 
manner as the President. In order to assist the President, 
Congress has, from time to time, created a number of ex- 
ecutive departments, whose secretaries constitute the Presi- 
dent's Cabinet, and are consulted by him on important 
matters. In addition to his executive duties the Presi- 
dent takes an important part in legislation since he may 



168 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

veto any bill passed by Congress, and such bill cannot 
then become a law unless it is passed in each house of 
Congress by a two-thirds vote. 

3 Judicial Department 

The Constitution created a judicial department which 
was to consist of a Supreme Court of the United States, 
and of such inferior courts as Congress might see fit to 
establish. By the wise legislation of Congress the judicial 
department has become of great importance in our govern- 
ment. In addition to the Supreme Court, which is at the 
head of the department, a number of lower courts have 
been created by Congress. All the judges of all these 
courts are appointed by the President, but each appoint- 
ment must be confirmed by the Senate. It is the duty of 
these courts to interpret and apply the laws that relate 
to the national government. The Constitution, the laws 
passed by Congress, and the treaties of the United States 
are interpreted by the regular United States courts. Cases 
may be tried first in the District Courts, then appealed in 
succession to the Circuit Courts, Circuit Court of Appeals, 
and to the Supreme Court. In all cases the decision of 
the Supreme Court is final. The Supreme Court may 
declare an act of the President's, or a law passed by Con- 
gress unconstitutional and therefore null and void. Thus 
the Supreme Court is at the very head of the national 
government. No other judicial body in the world has such 
power, and in establishing such a body the Constitutional 
Convention created a new principle of government. 

4. Ratification 

When the Constitution was given to the states for rati- 
fication the people soon became divided into two parties, 
and there began one of the ablest and most remarkable 
campaigns in the history of America. Many feared that 
the central government provided was too strong and might 
become unjust and overthrow the rights of the people. 



The Constitution 169 

Those favoring the ratification of the Constitution were 
called Federalists, and those opposed, Anti-Federalists. 
Hamilton and Madison were the leaders of those who 
favored the Constitution, and they did a magnificent work 
in urging its adoption. The Constitution provided that 
it should go into effect as soon as ratified by nine states. 
The nine states necessary had ratified the Constitution by 
March, 1788, and the others soon followed. 

VII Organization of the New Government 

By the ratification of the new Constitution, the govern- 
ment created by the Articles of Confederation came to an 
end. The first presidential election under the Constitu- 
tion occurred in January, 1789. Washington received 
every vote, and thus became the first President of the 
United States. John Adams received the next largest 
number and became vice-president. Congress at once 
proceeded to organize the different departments of gov- 
ernment in accordance with the Constitution. It passed 
laws organizing the judicial department, and establishing 
four cabinet departments. Thus came to an end the 
Critical Period of American History, and thus went into 
effect the present Constitution of the United States. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(The Critical Period) 
I 
Why may the time between 1783 and 1789 be called "The Critical 
Period of American History"? Describe the nature of the national gov- 
ernment during the Revolution until the adoption of the Articles of Con- 
federation in 1781. Describe the nature of the national government pro- 
vided for by the Articles of Confederation. In what way did the Ar- 
ticles of Confederation assist to bring about the bad condition of affairs 
that existed during the Critical Period? During this period why were the 
people opposed to creating a strong central government? 

II 

To what territory- did the Ordinance of 1787 apply? Describe in full 
the government provided for by this ordinance. Discuss the importance 



170 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

of this ordinance with regard to slavery and the government of the terri- 
tories of the United States. 

Ill 
Describe the conditions of money and business during the Critical 
Period. What brought about these conditions? 

IV 
Describe fully w^hat is meant by "Anarchy and Rebellion" during the 
Critical Period. How did this threaten the life of the nation? How did 
these disturbances assist in preparing the way for the adoption of a strong 
central government? 

V 
Describe fully the events leading to the Constitutional Convention. 
Tell what you can about the men that composed the Convention. How was 
the Convention organized? Did the Convention exceed the purpose for 
which it was called? Describe fully the Three Great Compromises of the 
Convention. 

VI 

(In studying the national government in accordance with the ques- 
tions which follow, the pupil should make constant use of the Constitu- 
tion.) For how many departments of government did the new Constitu- 
tion provide? Compare this plan of government with that which existed 
during colonial times and also with that which exists in the states at the 
present time. Describe in a general way the legislative department created 
by the Constitution. What powers and duties belong to the House of Rep- 
resentatives that do not belong to the Senate? What are the reasons for 
this? What powers and duties belong to the Senate that do not belong 
to the House of Representatives? What are the reasons for this? De- 
scribe the general powers and duties of Congress. How are Senators and 
Representatives elected? What is the reason for having a Senator's term 
of office longer than that of a Representative? Describe in a general way 
the executive department created by the Constitution. How are the Presi- 
dent and vice-president of the United States elected and for how long 
a term? Describe in full the President's Cabinet and its general powers 
and duties. Describe fully the general powers and duties of the President. 
What power has the President in legislation? What are the duties of the 
vice-president? 

Describe in a general way the judicial department created by the Con- 
stitution. Describe briefly the different classes of United States courts. 
Discuss the general powers and duties of the judicial department. Com- 
pare with regard to its power the Supreme Court of the United States 
with the supreme courts of other nations. 

When the Constitution was submitted to the people for their approval, 
why were many opposed to its ratification? Explain fully what is mpant 



The Constitution 171 

by Federalists and Anti-Federalists during the campaign for the ratification 
of the Constitution. Who were some of the leading Federalists and Anti- 
Federalists? Who wrote "The Federalist" and what was its effect on the 
campaign for the ratification of the Constitution? Discuss briefly the cam- 
paign which resulted in the ratification of the Constitution. 

VII 

Discuss the organization of the new government. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the nature of the National Government during the Critical 
Period. Discuss the conditions of the country during the Critical Period. 
Discuss the Ordinance of 1787. Discuss the events which led to the Con- 
stitutional Convention. Explain fully the Three Great Compromises. 
Discuss the National Government provided for by the Constitution. Discuss 
the ratification of the Constitution. 



NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN 
INTERFERENCE 

A THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

I Origin of American Neutrality in European 

Affairs, 1793 

Mc. 206-207; T. 189-190; M. 198-199 

II The Jay Treaty, 1795 

Mc. 207-209; T. 190-191 ; M. 202-204 

III Breach with France, 1799-1800 

Mc. 210-214; T. 194-197; M. 204 

IV The Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798 

Mc. 211-212; T. 195; M. 205 

V The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798-1799 

Mc. 212-213; T. 195-196; M. 205 

VI The Purchase of Louisiana, 1803 

Mc. 218; T. 201-204; M. 208-209 

VII European Interference with American Com- 

merce, 1800- 18 1 2 

1. Decrees and Orders in Council, 1806-18 10 

Mc. 224-227; T. 210-211 ; M. 211 

2. Jefferson's Embargo Policy, i8oy-i8oQ 

Mc. 226-228, 250; T. 211-212; M. 211-212 

VIII The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial 
Independence, 1812-1814 

1 . Causes 

Mc. 231 ; H. Ill, 228-231 ; T. 215; M. 215-217 

2. The War on Land 

Mc.233, 235, 238; H. Ill, 274-312 ;T. 216-223; 
M. 217-218, 222-224 



Financial Legislation 



173 



3. The IV ar on the Sea 

Mc. 234-237; H. Ill, 223-255; T. 217-220; 
AI. 218-220, 222-223 

4. Results 

(a) Treaty of Peace, 1814 

Mc. 239; T. 223-224; M. 224 

(b) Commercial and Industrial Results 

M. 224 

(c) Effect on the Nation 

Mc. 239; T. 229 

IX The Hartford Convention, 1814 

T. 224-225 ; M. 224 

X Purchase of Florida, 1819 

Mc. 260-262; T. 230-231 ; M. 227 

XI The Monroe Doctrine, 1823 

Mc. 262-265; T. 238-240; M. 232-233 



B FINANCIAL LEGISLATION : THE TARIFF 

I Hamilton's Financial Measures, 1790-1791 

Mc. 198-202; T. 184-186; M. 197-198 

1. Tariff Duties 

2. Excise 

3. Funding of National Debt 

4. Assumption of State Debts 

5. Establishment of the United States Bank 

II Jefferson and Gallatin's F'inancial Policy, i8oi- 

1809 

Mc. 216-218 

III The National Bank and State Banks 

Mc. 255-257; T. 226-227 



174 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

IV Tariff Legislation 

1. The First Tariff Act, lySg 

Mc. 197; T. 184; M. 197, 24611 

2. Grozvth of the Idea of Protection 

T. 231, 232, 240, 248 

3. Attitude of Sections of the Country 

Mc. 303 ; T. 232, 248 ; M. 245-246 

C POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Rise of Political Parties 

Mc. 170, 202-203; T. 174-175, 189; M. 195 

II Fall of the Federalist Party 

Mc. 211, 259; T. 195, 198, 225, 228 

III The Republican Party 

Mc. 215, 229, 259-260, 277, 297-301 ; T. 198-201, 228- 
229, 241-242; M. 206 

D GROWTH OF THE NATION 

I Growth in Territory and Population 

Mc. 241, 244-246, 266-268; T. 244 

II Movement of Population 

Mc. 241-242 

1 . Causes 

2. Direction 

III Results of Westward Expansion 

1. Formation of States 

Mc. 243-245 

2. Internal Improvements 

Mc. 251-252, 279-286; T. 209, 233-235, 245 ; M. 
231-232, 235-236 



Institutional Life 175 

3. Struggle Over Slavery: The Missouri Compromise, 
1820 
Mc. 274-276; T. 235-238; M. 227-231 

IV Growth of National Unity 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

E INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

I Industrial Conditions 

Mc. 301-303 

1. Transportation and Communication 

Mc. 252-253; H. Ill, 84-104; T. 212, 233-235, 
244 

2. Agriculture 

Mc. 248-249 ; T. 244 

3. Commerce 

Mc. 248-24g 

4. Manufactures 

Mc. 249-250 

II Social Conditions 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 
H. Ill, 56-61, 126-138, 143-149 

III Government 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

IV Religion 

(To be discussed bv the teacher) 
H. Ill, 53 

V Education 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 



NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN 
INTERFERENCE 

The history of the United States from the time the new gov- 
ernment was organized in the spring of 1789 to the beginning 
of the Civil War in 1861, may be divided into two periods. The 
first period extends from 1789 to about 1828, and the second 
period from about this date to the Civil War. This division is 
based on strictly historical grounds, and is not made simply as a 
matter of convenience. The history of the United States during 
each of these periods was shaped and controlled by many forces 
and conditions, but there were certain causes and conditions that 
had the main or controlling effect upon the history of each period. 
During the greater part of the first period, the interference of 
foreign nations in the affairs of the United States had a pro- 
found, important, and controlling effect on our history. A large 
part of the legislation of Congress related either directly or indi- 
rectly to this interference. This constant meddling in our affairs 
by Europe led finally to another war with England, which secured 
for the United States the proper respect and consideration of all 
the other nations. The main or controlling force in the history 
of the United States during the second period was the question 
of slavery in its relation to the westward growth of the nation 
in territory and population. During both periods the growth of 
the United States in territory, wealth and population was most 
rapid and important, but the main question in relation to this 
growth during the first period was European interference and 
the main question during the second period was slavery. During 
the first period, however, slavery was quietly becoming more and 
more firmly established in the South, but the pressure of foreign 
nations on the United States and the manner in which the west- 
ern country was settled, kept this question fairly quiet. The 
opposition to Europe during the first period tended to unite the 
American people and to create in them a patriotism and love for 
the nation and the National government, and to break down the 
idea of state sovereignty that existed when the Constitution was 



The Period of European Interference 177 

adopted. During this first period, however, slavery was quietly 
causing the social and the industrial conditions of the North and 
South to become more and more vmlike, and during the second 
period this resulted in bitter discussions that ended in a dreadful 
Civil War. It therefore becomes plain that the controlling forces 
or conditions in the history of the United States from 1789 to 
about 1828 were European interference in our affairs and the 
rapid growth of the nation in 'territory and population, and that 
the controlling force or condition in our history from about 1828 
to 1 86 1 was the slavery question in relation to this continued 
rapid growth of the nation in territory and population. Because 
of these controlling forces and conditions, the first period will be 
called, National Growth and European Interference, and the 
second period will be called, Westward Expansion and Slavery. 

THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

I Origin of American Neutrality in European Affairs, 
1793 

In 1793 war broke out between France and England. The 
people of the United States were in favor of assisting France. 
To do this meant the destruction of American commerce, 
and war with the English and Indians along the frontier of 
the United States. It also meant that the United States 
would be involved in European struggles which did not affect 
American affairs. The time had come when the United 
States must decide whether she would meddle in European 
affairs which did not concern her particularly and which 
must often involve a useless loss of life and property, or 
whether she would remain neutral. Washington foresaw the 
vast importance of this decision, and after mature delibera- 
tion announced in a proclamation that the policy of the United 
States should be non-interference in European affairs. This 
decision marked Washington as a statesman of the highest 
rank. The people all over the United States, in mass meet- 
ings and through the press, were urging the government to 



178 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

assist France, but Washington held fast to his purpose, and 
was finally sustained by Congress. This action on Washing- 
ton's part was made doubly hard by the presence in America 
of Genet, an agent of the French government, who roused 
great enthusiasm among the people, and swung public opin- 
ion to the side of the French. By the treaty made with 
France during the Revolution, the United States was under 
obligations to aid France in case of war with Great Britain. 
The United States, however, was not called upon by the 
French government to fulfill these obligations. The American 
government would have been placed in an awkward position 
had such a demand been made. Thus was born American 
Neutrality and the United States has ever since held stead- 
fastly to this principle. The importance to the United States 
of this principle or unwritten law can hardly be overesti- 
mated. It has saved this nation from many a bloody and use- 
less war, and has permitted it to develop its natural resources 
unmolested by European quarrels and conflicts. The United 
States under Washington established the unwritten law that 
she should not interfere in the afifairs of Europe which did 
not concern her and thirty years later, under Monroe, she es- 
tablished the unwritten law that no European nation should 
interfere with strictly American affairs unless directly con- 
cerned. 

II The Jay Treaty, 1795 

Some important questions had been left unsettled by the 
treaty of 1783 at the close of the Revolution, and the war 
between France and England gave rise to other difficulties, 
especially concerning American trade. The English insisted 
on enforcing what is known as the "Rule of 1756" which 
provided that a neutral could not enjoy in time of war a trade 
prohibited in time of peace. For instance: The Americans 
were not allowed to trade with the French West Indies in 
time of peace, but when the war broke out with England, 
the French were glad to open their West Indian ports to 



The Period of European Interference 179 

American commerce for the sake of obtaining supplies. By 
the Rule of 1756, which Great Britain now put into force, 
this trade was forbidden to Americans, and thus their com- 
merce was greatly injured. Another contention arose re- 
garding the right of England to impress British sailors from 
American vessels into the British navy. England claimed 
the right to search American vessels anywhere on the seas 
for British sailors, and to forcibly remove them to British 
ships. In order to settle these various difficulties, Chief 
Justice Jay was sent by Washington to England to make 
a treaty. Some of the provisions of the treaty were not favor- 
able to the United States and there was much adverse dis- 
cussion before the treaty was finally ratified. While the 
treaty was not very favorable to American interests it accom- 
plished its purpose — the avoidance of war with England at 
that time. 

III Breach with France, 1796-1799 

The Jay treaty gave to England valuable commercial 
rights. France was irritated by the Genet affair and the 
Neutrality Proclamation, and the Jay treaty, favorable as it 
was to England, still further exasperated her. The Genet 
affair had done much to turn American sympathy from 
France, and the insults to the American representatives in 
France — the X. Y. Z. affair — roused the indignation of the 
United States. For awhile diplomacy seemed unable to 
avert war between the two countries. In fact fighting actu- 
ally began on the sea, but the uniform success of the Ameri- 
can navy and a change of government in France caused her 
to re-open diplomatic relations and war was averted. 

IV The Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798 

The firm stand taken by the Federalists in the trouble with 
France made Adams and the Federalists very popular, but 
the passage by Congress of several laws, known as the Alien 
and Sedition Laws, brought them suddenly into great dis- 
favor. The violent and abusive attacks on the administra- 



180 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

tion and the Federalist leaders by the Republican papers, a 
large number of whose editors were foreigners, led to the 
passage of these laws. The first law against aliens raised 
the period of residence necessary for naturalization to four- 
teen years. The act known as the Alien Act gave the Presi- 
dent power to deport from the United States any foreigners 
whom he considered dangerous to the country. The Sedi- 
tion Act gave the President and the officers of the govern- 
ment the right to imprison and fine those who uttered or 
wrote anything of a seditious or treasonable nature against 
the government, or even anything which tended to defame 
the government or any of its officers. The Sedition Act was 
aimed against the press, and was the first and last attempt 
of the national government to interfere with its freedom. 

V The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798-1799 

The Alien and Sedition Laws were fiercely attacked by the 
Republicans led by Jefferson and Madison. They felt that 
the Federalist party was using its power in the government 
to destroy the rights of the people. This feeling took definite 
shape in the legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky, which 
passed resolutions on the subject. The Kentucky resolutions 
were drawn up by Jefferson and were quite radical. They 
stated that the Constitution was a compact between sovereign 
states, and that laws passed by Congress which were judged 
un-constitutional by a state might be declared null and void 
by that state. The Virginia Resolutions were drawn up by 
Madison. They also called the Constitution a compact, and 
put forth nullification as the rightful remedy in case of the 
passage of laws in violation of the Constitution. Both of 
these series of resolutions are of great importance because 
they were the first definite expression of the doctrine of 
State Rights as opposed to National Sovereignty. 

VI The Purchase of Louisiana, 1803 

The Mississippi river was the main outlet for the commerce 
of all the American territory between the Alleghanies and 



The Period of European Interference 181 

the Mississippi, hence the possession of the mouth of the 
great river was a matter of great importance to the settlers 
of this region. So long as Spain held this, there was little 
to be feared by the Americans, for Spain was a weak nation, 
and by a treaty made in 1795 allowed the United States the 
right of deposit — that is, the right to land merchandise, or 
to transfer it from river boats and steamers to sea-going 
vessels — at New Orleans. In 1802 Spain ceded the eijtire 
Louisiana territory, including the mouth of the Mississippi, 
to France. This was a just cause of alarm and protest for 
the Americans. Napoleon, who was master of France and 
very powerful in continental Europe at that time, had plans 
lor building up an American Empire, and .seemed to be in s 
position to do so. The closing of the port of New Orleans 
to American trade at the time of the transfer of the territory 
from Spain to France brought forth such a protest from ihe 
western settlers that Jefferson sent a commission to France 
to try to buy the territory at the mouth of the river. Na- 
poleon at first refused, but the failure of an expedition to 
San Domingo, and the renewal of war with England led him 
to change his mind and he offered to sell not only the land 
at the mouth of the river, but the whole of the Louisiana ter- 
ritory to the United States. He was afraid that England 
might get possession of this territory, and. if France must 
lose it, he preferred that it should belong to the United States. 
The price paid for this vast domain was only $15,000,000. 

During the administrations of Washington and Adams, 
Jefferson had advocated a strict construction of the Constitu- 
tion, but in the purchase of Louisiana he gave it a looser 
construction than the Federalists had ever dared to give. 

VII European Interference with American Commerce, 
1800-1812 

I. Decrees and Orders in Council, 1S06-1810 

From 1803 to 181 5, France and England were continu- 
ously at war. Each nation tried to injure the other by de- 



182 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

stroying its commerce. In order to do this the British by 
"Orders in Council" and Napoleon by "Decrees," would 
declare the ports of the other to be in a state of blockade, 
although they were unable to make such blockade effective 
by actually keeping war vessels at the ports declared 
blockaded. England and France both claimed the right 
to take as prizes all merchant vessels trading with the 
enemy in violation of the commercial regulations which 
each had issued. This policy, if carried out, would have 
resulted in the destruction of American commerce. The 
United States, however, maintained that a neutral state 
had a right to trade freely with either of the nations at 
war, unless her ports were actually blockaded. From 1803 
to 1809 the dispute on this point between the United States 
and the two nations at war, England and France, was al- 
most continuous ; and on several occasions it came very 
nearly involving the United States in war. In fact it would 
have done so had it not been for the weak attitude of 
Jefferson. 

2. Jefferson's Embargo Policy, i8o/-i8og 

Jefferson tried to injure first England and then France 
by having Congress pass what w^ere known as the Non- 
Importation and the Embargo Acts. The Non-Importation 
Act forbade the importation of goods from Eng- 
land. The Embargo was much more severe and for- 
bade the sending of any goods from the United 
States to any foreign nation. As the Embargo bore more 
heavily on America than on any other nation, it was not a 
success, and was abandoned. A law forbidding commerce 
with England or France but allowing it with other nations 
was passed in place of the Embargo Law, and was much 
better for American commerce. 

VIII The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Inde- 
pendence, 1812-1814 
I . Causes 

The causes of this war were primarilv interference with 



The Period of European Interference 183 

American trade, and impressment of American seamen. 
The character of the United States Congress at this time 
also had much to do with the bringing on of the war. Very 
few of the statesmen who controlled affairs during and for 
a quarter of a century after the Revolution were now mem- 
bers of the national legislature. Statesmen of a younger 
generation had come into power. They represented the 
young and rising democracy of America, and especially of 
the West. They were full of hope and strength, believed 
in the future greatness of the United States, and were hu- 
miliated and annoyed by the continual insults offered this 
nation by France and England. From the first they were 
determined to end this humiliation, even though compelled 
to resort to war. Both England and France were involved 
in offenses against American commerce and American 
seamen ; but Great Britain was not only the greater of- 
fender in these respects, but had also offended in other 
ways, so war was declared against her. ' The arrogant 
bearing of the English leaders toward America was irri- 
tating to Americans, and the continual Indian troubles on 
the frontiers, which were due largely to English influence, 
also caused bitter feeling. 

2. The War on Land 

In this war the Americans were, as a rule, unsuccessful 
in their campaigns on land. The soldiers were untrained, 
and the officers, frequently owing their appointments to 
political reasons, were generally incompetent. Neither na- 
tion, however, was successful in invading the territory of 
the other. The two most notable events of the war on land 
were the capture of Washington and the burning of its 
public buildings by the British, and the disastrous defeat 
of an army of British veterans at New Orleans by General 
Jackson. 

3. The War on the Sea 

Although, at the beginning of the war, the Americans 
had but twelve vessels as against England's twelve hun- 



184 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

dred, the American navy succeeded in winning a series of 
brilliant victories, and often against great odds. Because 
of England's superiority in the number of ships, most of 
the American vessels were finally either driven from the 
sea or blockaded in the harbors of the United States. Per- 
haps even more important than the work of the regular 
navy was the injury which American privateers did to the 
commerce of England. 

4. Results 

(a) Treaty of Peace 

The points of dispute which caused the war were not 
mentioned in the treaty of peace. The treaty provided 
for the restoration of the conquests of both parties, and 
arranged for the settlement of boundary disputes and 
other minor points. 

(b) Commercial and Industrial Results 

The main result of this war was the commercial inde- 
pendence of the United States, and never since then has 
any nation interfered with American commerce or at- 
tempted the impressment of American seamen. The 
restrictions on commerce during the war caused the birth 
of American factories by compelling the capitalists, 
especially in the North, to invest in manufacturing rather 
than in shipping enterprises, and by compelling the 
people of the country to rely upon home industry for 
their manufacturing goods. 

(c) Effect on the Nation 

The war had the effect of welding the Nation more 
firmly, and of making it independent not only of Europe, 
but of its own colonial traditions. It compelled a broader 
interpretation of the powers of the Constitution. The 
Nation now took a higher position among the nations of 
the world than it had held before. 



The Period of European Interference 185 

IX The Hartford Convention, 1814 

As one of the principal industries of New England was 
foreign commerce, the Embargo and Non-Importation policy 
of Jefferson, and especially the Enforcement Act which pro- 
vided drastic measures for the enforcement of this policy, 
bore heavily upon the business interests of that section. The 
people of New England soon became strongly opposed to 
these laws which interfered with her commerce. In 1809 
the legislature of Massachusetts passed resolutions which in 
spirit were much the same as the Virginia and Kentucky 
Resolutions. New England was strongly Federalist, and 
was vigorously opposed to Jefferson and the principles of 
the Republican party. The people of New England were 
also inclined to be friendly with England because of com- 
mercial relations with that nation, and were therefore opposed 
to the War of 1812. As this war progressed, New England 
became still more strongly opposed to it, and events seemed 
to indicate that her leaders were contemplating some kind of 
armed resistance to the national government. In 1814 dele- 
gates from the various New England states met in conven- 
tion at Hartford, Connecticut, to consider plans for unity of 
action on the part of New England. This convention 
conducted its proceedings behind closed doors, and 
drew up resolutions declaring, among other things, that when 
the Constitution was violated by acts of Congress, it became 
the duty of a state to interpose its authority. The Conven- 
tion sent a delegate to Congress bearing these and other 
resolutions of similar nature, but before the delegate reached 
Congress, peace was declared. 

X The Purchase of Florida, 1819 

The United States had long wished to secure the Floridas, 
and during the war of 1812 had seized a part of West Florida. 
Spain was unable to govern well her possessions so far from 
home, and Florida was in a constant turmoil. It was made 
a refuge by all sorts of criminals, and was the source of con- 



186 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

stant trouble to the United States. The invasion of Florida 
by an expedition under Andrew Jackson which had been sent 
against the Seminole Indians in Georgia, brought matters 
to a crisis. This resulted in Spain's selling East Florida to the 
United States for $5,000,000 and giving up all her claims to 
West Florida. The United States, at the same time, gave up 
its claim to Texas. 

XI The Monroe Doctrine, 1823 

About 1 81 5 Russia announced that she claimed the Pacific 
Coast from Alaska down to the 51st parallel, and that no 
foreign vessel should approach within one hundred miles of 
the shore. It was her evident intention to extend her in- 
fluence southward and to shut out the United States from the 
Pacific Coast. John Quincy Adams, as Secretary of State, 
entered a vigorous protest against these designs of Russia, 
in which he stated that neither North nor South America 
was open to further European colonization. Between 1810 
and 1822 all of the Spanish- American colonies in North and 
South America, taking advantage of the weakened condition 
of Spain, threw oflf Spanish authority and established inde- 
pendent republics, which were recognized by the United 
States as independent powers. These republics included 
Mexico and all of South America save Brazil, which still 
belonged to Portugal. In 181 5 nearly all of the European 
powers, except England, formed what is known as the Holy 
Alliance, their object being to perpetuate monarchical gov- 
ernment and to assist Spain in the recovery of her lost pos- 
sessions. Great Britain proposed that the United States com- 
bine with her against this Holy Alliance. The United States 
declined to act in concert with Great Britain, but President 
Monroe, at the suggestion of Adams, included in his annual 
message to Congress a statement known as the Monroe Doc- 
trine. This statement defined the attitude of the United 
States on the question of European colonization in the New 
World and European interference with American republics. 



' The Period of European Interference 187 

The doctrine has ever since been adhered to by the United 
States, and in substance is as follows : 

1. European nations will not be permitted to establish 
any new colonies in America or to add any more terri- 
tory to those already existing. 

2. European nations will not be permitted to interfere 
with the internal affairs of American republics. 

The Monroe Doctrine was the logical result of the prin- 
ciple of American Neutrality established by Washington. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(The Period of European Interference.) 

Into what two periods does the history of the United States between 
1789 and i860 naturally divide itself? Why may the first period be called 
National Growth and European Interference? Why may the second 
period be called Westward Expansion and Slavery? 

I 

Why did so many of the Americans wish to assist France in the war 
which broke out between England and France in 1793? Why did Washing- 
ton issue his Neutrality Proclamation? Describe the Genet affair. Under 
what obligations was the United States to France? Discuss the importance 
of American Neutrality in European Affairs. How is this related to the 
Monroe Doctrine? 

II 

Explain the " Rule of 1756." Illustrate how it was applied to America. 
Describe the impressment policy of Great Britain. What were the terms of 
Jay's treaty? How was it received in the United States? 

Ill 

How did France regard the Jay treaty? What was the effect of the 
Genet affair and the Neutrality Proclamation on France? Explain the 
X. Y. Z affair. How was the difficulty between France and the United 
States finally settled? 

IV 

What stand had the Federalists taken in the trouble with France? 
What was the position of the Republicans ? What led to the passage of 
the Alien and Sedition Laws? Discuss the provisions of each of these 
laws. 



188 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

V 

Upon what grounds did the Republicans oppose the Alien and Sedition 
Laws? How did these laws lead to the passage of the Virginia and Ken- 
tucky resolutions? Who was the author of the Kentucky resolutions? 
What was their nature? Who drew up the Virginia resolutions? How 
did they differ from the Kentucky resolutions? Why are these resolutions 
important ? 

VI 

Why did the western settlers desire the possession of the mouth of the 
Mississippi River? Why did the United States object to the passing of 
this territory into the hands of the French? What caused Jefferson to 
attempt to buy the territory at the mouth of the river? What conditions 
in Europe made Napoleon willing to sell the entire Louisiana territory? 
Why did he sell it to the United States? How did this purchase force the 
Republican party to change its attitude as to the construction of the 
Constitution? 

VII 

Explain the British '' Orders in Council " and the French " Decrees." 
How did they injure America? How did Jefferson try to retaliate? What 
was the effect of his Embargo policy on America? Why was it not a 
success? 

VIII 

Discuss the causes leading to the War of 1812. How did the charac- 
ter of the United States Congress tend to bring on war at this time? 
Describe the land campaigns of this war. Compare the American and 
British navies. Describe the work of the American navy and privateers. 
Discuss the terms of the treaty of peace which was signed after the close 
of the war. Why is this war called the "Second War of Independence"? 
What was the effect of the war upon industrial conditions in the United 
States? What was its effect on national feeling? Describe the effect 
of the war on the position of the United States among other nations. 

IX 
Why were the people of New England opposed to the War of 1812? 
Discuss the causes and nature of the Hartford Convention. 

X 

Why did the United States wish to buy Florida? What caused Spain 
to be willing to sell it? What were the terms of the purchase? 

XI 

Describe the claims -of Russia on the Pacific Coast. Describe the 
conditions in the Spanish-American colonies which led to the formation 



The Period of European Interference 189 

of the Holy Alliance. What was tlie nature and object of the Holy 
Alliance? State the provisions of the Monroe Doctrine. How is this 
Doctrine related to Washington's Neutrality Proclamation? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the reasons for the division of United States history from 
1789 to 1861 into two periods, and the predominating influence of each 
period. Discuss the origin of American neutrality in European affairs, 
and show its importance as a principle. Discuss the conditions leading 
to the making of the Jay treaty. Discuss the treaty and its effect. Discuss 
the difficulties with France during the early part of this period. Discuss 
the Alien and Sedition Acts. Discuss the Virginia and Kentucky resolu- 
tions. Describe the conditions in America and in Europe that led to the 
purchase of Louisiana by the United States. Discuss the effect of this 
purchase on political parties and the general government. Describe the 
" Orders in Council," and " Decrees," and their effect on American com- 
merce. Discuss Jefferson's embargo policy. Discuss the causes of the 
War of 1812. Discuss the industrial and political results of the War of 
1812. Discuss the Hartford Convention. Compare the principles set forth 
in this convention with those of the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions. 
Discuss the purchase of Florida. Discuss the conditions leading to the 
setting forth of the Monroe Doctrine. Discuss the Monroe Doctrine and 
its relation to Washington's Neutrality Proclamation. 



190 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 
FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

I Hamilton's Financial Measures, 1790-1791 

The new government found the national treasury empty, 
with a debt of about $54,000,000 on hand, and the credit of 
the United States both at home and among foreign nations 
almost worthless. Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the 
Treasury, brought forward a plan for placing the financial 
affairs of the government on a firm foundation. This plan 
proved him to be one of the ablest financiers in the United 
States. His plan was as follows : 

1. A slight increase in the duties laid by the first tariff. 

2. An excise or internal tax to be placed on distilled 
liquors. 

3. The funding of the National Debt. The old bonds of 
the nation had fallen to twenty-five per cent of their face 
value. New United States bonds were to be issued for 
the total face value of the old and exchanged for them. 

4. The assumption of state debts. Debts contracted by 
the states during the Revolution for its support were to 
be assumed and paid in full by the national government. 

5. Establishment of the United States Bank. The man- 
agement of the bank was to be private, but the United 
States was to be a large share holder, reserving the 
right of examining into its financial condition. His 
object here was to enable the government to manage its 
financial affairs more easily and to give stability to money 
matters throughout the country. 

After much discussion Hamilton's entire plan for estab- 
lishing the credit of the national government was adopted. 
The result of its operation was better than Hamilton him- 
self had dared hope. The credit of the United States was 
firmly established, both at home and abroad. It was not long 
before a dollar's worth of United States bonds was worth 



financial Legislation 191 

a dollar of gold in London, whereas before a dollar's worth 
of these bonds was worth less than twenty-five cents. The 
success of this plan tended to give the people confidence in 
the strength, power, and dignity of the national government. 

II Jefferson and Gallatin's Financial Policy, 1801-1809 

The public debt of the United States had increased from 
about $77,000,000 in 1792 to nearly $83,000,000 in 1800. The 
income had increased in the same period from less than $4,- 
000,000 to more than $10,000,000. Jefiferson advocated a 
reduction of public expenses in order to lessen the taxes and 
to pay the public debt. The Secretary of the Treasury, Al- 
bert Gallatin, formed a plan for the carrying out of this 
policy. The reduction in expense was accomplished by re- 
ducing the army about one-half, and the navy from twenty- 
seven vessels in commission for service to seven, and by stop- 
ping all construction of vessels for the navy. This was prac- 
tically the destruction of the military defenses of the Nation, 
but this policy, together with other measures, was so suc- 
cessful in accomplishing its purpose that by 1808 the public 
debt had been reduced to $45,000,000 and the taxes had been 
reduced more than $1,000,000, although the expenses of the 
government had constantly increased, and Louisiana had been 
bought and paid for in this period. Gallatin's success marks 
him as a financier of great ability. 

III The National Bank and State Banks 

At the time of the establishment of the National Bank in 
1 79 1 there were only four State banks in existence; when the 
twenty year charter of the National Bank expired in 181 1, 
there were eighty-eight of these state banks in existence, and 
in the three years following, this number was more than 
doubled. In general these State banks were hostile to the 
National bank, for they hoped to secure its business and the 
government deposits. Some of the states were interested 
in these banks, and for that and other reasons took action 



192 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

in their legislatures against renewing the charter of the Na- 
tional Bank. Many feared the influence of this bank as a 
monopoly, and also as a corrupt factor in politics. All these 
and other influences prevented the renewal of the charter in 
1811, and thus during the war of 181 2, when most needed, a 
tried and solid financial system was lacking in the United 
States. At the close of the war the financial affairs of the 
nation were in a bad condition and because of this, Congress 
in 1816, renewed the charter of the United States Bank for a 
period of twenty years. 

IV Tariff Legislation 

1. Tlie First Tariff Act, i/8p 

In order to secure revenue for the new government the 
first Congress at once proceeded to levy import duties. 
During the discussion of the bill for this purpose, the 
question as to whether one of the main objects of import 
duties should be the protection of American industries, 
was first brought before the American people. The main 
object of this bill as passed was the obtaining of revenue, 
but the law was also protective in a small measure. 

2. Growtli of the Idea of Protection 

Up to 1 816 there was very little change in the tariflf 
policy of the United States. While the duties were changed 
and in many cases increased from time to time, the principle 
of tariff for revenue chiefly remained the same. The War 
of 181 2, however, had aided the development of Ameri- 
can manufactures and their protection and encouragement 
by the government became a matter of great importance. 
This led to the passing of a tariff law in 1816 which had 
for its express purpose the protection of American indus- 
tries. This principle was established still more firmly by 
the passage in 1824 of a still higher protective tariff. 



Financial Lcj^islation 193 

3. Attitude of Sections of the Country 

There was practically no opposition to the tariff policy 
of the government up to the adoption of the principle of 
protection. Even in 1816 the opposition was not strong, 
but in the few years following it gathered strength, espe- 
cially in the South. The northern and eastern states had 
developed valuable manufacturing interests, and these sec- 
tions were, as a whole, favorable to a protective policy. 
The South, on the other hand, had remained almost entirely 
agricultural, and had developed no manufacturing interests 
of importance. The people of the South, therefore, thought 
they had nothing to gain by the principle of protection, 
and became strongly opposed to it. While those in New 
England who were engaged in manufacturing favored a 
protective tariff, those who were engaged in foreign com- 
merce were opposed to it from the first. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Financial Legislation) 

I 
Discuss the financial condition of the national government when first 
organized under the Constitution. Explain the provisions of Hamilton's 
financial plan. Explain what is meant by funding a debt. What was 
Hamilton's object in funding the national debt? What was his object in 
the assumption of state debts by the national government? Why was there 
so much opposition to this measure? How was it finally carried? Describe 
the National Bank as proposed by Hamilton. Give the substance of the 
arguments for and against the Bank. What was the effect of the adop- 
tion of Hamilton's financial measures? 

II 

Describe in a general way the financial condition of the Nation at 
the beginning of Jefferson's administration and his financial policy. Dis- 
cuss Gallatin's plan for the reduction of the taxes and expenses of the 
government: 

III 

Discuss the rise of State Banks. What prevented the renewal of the 
charter of the National Bank in 181 1? What caused its renewal in 1816? 



194 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

IV 

Describe the nature of the first tariff law. Explain the difference 
between a tariff for revenue and a tariff for protection. What caused the 
growth of the idea of tariff for protection? Explain the nature of the 
tariff law of 1816. Show how the principle of tariff for the purpose of 
the protection of American industries became more firmly established 
during this period. Explain the attitude of the South toward a protective 
tariff. Why did the northern and eastern states form a tariff for protec- 
tion of manufactures? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the object and nature of Hamilton's financial plan. Describe 
Gallatin's and Jefferson's financial policy. Describe the growth of State 
banks and their relation to the National Bank. Trace the history of the 
National Bank during this period. Discuss the tariff legislation 0$ 
this period, showing the growth of the idea of protection. Discuss the 
attitude of the different sections of the country toward the protective 
principle of the tariff. 



Political Parties 195 

POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Rise of Political Parties 

Political parties in the United States had their real origin 
during Washington's administration. They began with the 
difference of opinion on the part of the people and statesmen 
of the United States as to the nature of the new government. 
Section 8, Article I, of the Constitution, after enumerating 
specific duties of Congress, says that Congress shall have 
power " To make all Laws which shall be necessary and 
proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, 
and all Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government 
of the United States, or in any Department or Officer there- 
of." Washington, Hamilton and Adams were the leaders 
of those who thought that the Constitution should be loosely 
interpreted ; that is, that this clause should be taken to mean 
that the new government should exercise not only the powers 
specifically granted to it by the Constitution, but that it should 
also assume such implied powers as might be necessary 
or even expedient to carry out those powers specifically 
given to it. They wished to centralize the government, and 
believed that it should be controlled by the well-born, edu- 
cated and wealthy classes. Jefferson and Madison were the 
leaders of those who believed that the Constitution should 
be strictly construed ; that Congress should assume only 
such implied powers as were absolutely necessary to carry out 
the powers specifically given to it. They did not believe that 
the government should be centralized or controlled by the 
upper classes. They had faith in the common people, and 
believed that the affairs of government could be safely en- 
trusted to them. But while Jefferson held these democratic 
views, his ideas were very different from those represented 
by the rising democracy which came into power with the 
election of Jackson in 1828. During his administration, 
Jefferson, in a measure, became converted to the loose con- 
struction of the Constitution. Washington, Hamilton and 



196 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

Adams and their followers became known as the Federalist 
party, and Jefferson and his party were called the Anti-Fed- 
eralist or Republican party. 

II Fall of the Federalist Party 

During the first years of the government under the Con- 
stitution the Federalist party was supreme. Washington and 
John Adams were Federalist presidents, Washington's term 
lasting from 1789 to 1797, and Adams's from 1797 to 1801. 
To that party must be given the credit of establishing the 
government upon a sound and not too radical basis. Yet it 
was doomed by its very makeup to early destruction. It was 
out of harmony with the rising democratic spirit of the 
Republic, and its fall marked not only the end of a political 
party, but also the passing of the old aristocratic ideas of 
government from American political life. The chief cause 
of the fall of the Federalist party was its theory of govern- 
ment by the leaders rather than by the mass of the people, 
which was not in accord with the democratic tendencies of the 
age, and it was this that made the fall of the party per- 
manent. The passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts brought 
a great deal of unpopularity on the party, which was further 
weakened by internal dissensions. The opposition of the 
Federalists to the War of 1812 gave the death blow to their 
already fallen party. 

III The Republican Party 

While the Federalists did not entirely disappear as a politi 
cal party until after the War of 1812, they lost most of their 
importance in political life after the election of Jefferson in 
1800, and the rest of this period was a period of Republican 
supremacy. The rapid growth of the West was an important 
factor in the growth of the Republican party. The new states 
carved out of the territory west of the Alleghanies repre- 
sented the rising democracy of the republic — the belief 
that one man is as good as another irrespective of his wealth 
or birth. The effect of this belief in American politics is first 



Political Parties 197 

seen in the election of Jefferson, and later in the election of 
the war congress of 1811-12. Jefferson was the first Repub- 
lican president, holding that office from 1801 to 1809. He 
was followed by Madison, 1809-1817. Monroe, who was 
president from 181 7 to 1825 was nominally a Republican 
president, but his administration was characterized by an 
almost total lack of party feeling, so much so that this periofl 
is commonly known as the " Era of good feeling." John 
Ouincy Adams was the fourth of the Republican presidents, 
and it was during his administration that the party broke 
up into personal factions. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Political Parties) 

I 

What cavised the rise of political parties? (The "elastic clause" of the 
Constitution should be studied by every pupil.) What is meant by "loose 
interpretation" of the Constitution? Who were the leaders of those who 
beheved that the constitution should be loosely interpreted? What were 
they called and what were their ideas of government? Who were the lead- 
ers of those who believed in the strict interpretation of the Constitution ? 
What was their party called? How did their ideas of government differ 
from those of the Federalists? Which tended to create a more strongly 
centralized government, broad or strict construction of the Constitution ? 
What caused the Republicans to become more in favor of broad con- 
struction? 

II 

Describe the work of the Federalist party. Explain how its ideas of 
government were out of harmony with the spirit of the times. How did 
this affect the party? What was the effect of the passage of the Alien and 
Sedition Acts on the Federalist party? Why did the Federalists oppose 
the war of 1812 and what was the effect of their opposition on their party? 

Ill 

E.xplain how the growth of the West aided the growth of the Repub- 
lican party. What were the more important measures of this party? Why 
was Monroe's administration called the "Era of good feeling"? 

Questions for Compositions and Ex,\min.\tions 

Discuss the origin of political parties. Discuss the principles and lead- 
ers of the Federalist and Republican parties. Give the causes of the fall 
of the Federalist party. Discuss the growth of the Republican party. 



198 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

GROWTH OF THE NATION 

I Growth in Territory and Population 

At the close of the Revolution the territory of the United 
States extended from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and 
from Canada to Florida. Of all this vast area of over 
800,000 square miles, less than 300,000 were occupied ; 'and 
of the 3,000,000 inhabitants, the great mass lived east of the 
Appalachian mountains. By the end of this period (1828) 
the area of the United States had increased — through the 
acquisition of the Louisiana territory in 1803 and of Florida 
in 1819 — • to more than 2,000,000 square miles, of which 
600,000 were settled. The population had reached nearly 
12,000,000, the increase in the West being much more rapid 
than in the East. 

n Movement of Population 

1 . Causes 

From early colonial times settlers had been slowl)' mov- 
ing westward in search of new homes, chiefly along the 
Ohio. The depression in business affairs immediately 
after the Revolution led to a great increase of migration 
westward, and to the settling of the territory between the 
Alleghanies and the Mississippi. It was true throughout 
this period — in fact even to the present day — ■ that when- 
ever there were hard times in the East with lack of busi- 
ness and scarcity of money, there was a rush of settlers 
westward. Land was cheap, fertile and well watered, and 
men welcomed the opportunity to build up homes and 
fortunes in a new country. The immigration of foreigners 
also aided this movement, though at that time it had not 
become a factor of great importance. 

2. Direction 

All this migration was along two definite courses which 
ran westward in parallel lines from the northern and 



Grozoth of the Nation 



199 



southern sections of the country bordering on the Atlantic. 
As the settlers moved from these sections, they carried with 
them into the new territory, their customs and institutions, 
and thus the nation developed along parallel lines running 
east and west. Thus in the southern part of the western 
territory the same industrial and social conditions prevailed 
as in the southern states, and slavery became established 
with the settlement of the country. In the northern part of 
this new territory the ideas and institutions of the northern 
Atlantic states prevailed, and consequently slavery was not 
established. 

Ill Results of Westward Expansion 

1. Formation of States 

In the organization of this new territory, the Ordinance 
of 1787 was followed. The rapid settlement of the west- 
ern lands soon led to the formation of new states in ac- 
cordance with the provisions of this Ordinance. The 
first state carved out of this western country, Kentucky, 
was admitted into the Union in 1792, and others soon 
followed. In 1828 the Union contained twenty-four states 
— almost twice the original number — of which nine were 
in the Mississippi valley. Thus the influence of the West 
became an important factor in national affairs. In charac- 
ter the constitutions of these states were very democratic — 
much more so than in the East. This was due to the con- 
ditions of frontier life where every man stood on an 
equality with every other man, dependent on his own 
efforts. 

2. Internal Improvements 

The rapid growth of the West and the consequent 
increase in the volume of its commerce made it necessary 
and valuable to both the East and West to open up high- 
ways between the two sections. The matter of building 
roads, bridges, canals, and improving the rivers by the aid 



200 NA'IIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

of the national government was early taken up by Congress 
and became a political issue. The first work of this kind 
undertaken by the government was the building of the 
Cumberland road between the Ohio river and the Potomac. 
Although internal improvements were constantly dis- 
cussed, nothing more was done by the national government 
during this period. The states however took up the work. 
New York completed the Erie Canal in 1825, and this canal 
has become an important factor in the nation's commerce. 
Other states also built important canals, roads and bridges. 

3. Struggle Over Slavery: The Missouri Compromise, 1820 

The westward expansion of the nation led to the first 
struggle over slavery. Slavery had existed in all the colo- 
nies, but the fact that slaves could not be used with profit 
in the North brought about the abolition of slavery in 
New England and in nearly all the middle states, and its 
prohibition in the Northwest Territory. The fact that there 
were but few slaves in the North caused a moral sen- 
timent to grow up slowly against slavery there, and this 
sentiment aided the industrial conditions in causing its 
abolition. In the South, on the other hand, slavery had 
become still more firmly entrenched in the indvistrial and 
social life. As has been said, the settlers of the western 
territory moved directly west from the Atlantic states, 
carrying their institutions with them. Consequently, as 
this territory was organized into states, these states were 
free or slave, according to the convictions of the settlers 
and to whether the states lay north or south of the Ohio 
river. The application of Missouri, the first state lying 
wholly west of the Mississippi, for admission into the 
Union led to a discussion of the extension of slavery into 
the Louisiana territory, which was finally settled by the 
Missouri Compromise. 

This compromise had its origin in the desire of the free 
and the slave sections of the nation each to prevent the 



Grozi'ih of the Nation 201 

Other from securing the larger number of representatives 
in the United States Senate. The northern states, having 
a larger population than the southern, would always have 
a majority in the House of Representatives. The southern 
states, knowing this, were determined to control as many 
votes in the Senate as the northern states, and thus be 
in a position to prevent any legislation injurious to slavery 
interests. In order to retain this control a slave state must 
be admitted into the Union with every free state. Up to 
1818 this plan had been followed carefully and of the 
twenty-two states then forming the Union, eleven were 
free and eleven were slave. To preserve this balance 
required that the territory included in the Louisiana Pur- 
chase should be half slave and half free. The North 
was determined that slavery should not be admitted into 
this new territory. When in 1818 Missouri applied for 
admission as a state, violent discussion arose. The House 
would not permit Missouri to enter as a slave state, and the 
Senate would not allow slavery to be prohibited. In 1820 
Maine applied for admission to the Union as a free state. 
The southern members of Congress would not consent 
to the admission of Maine unless Missouri were allowed 
to enter as a slave state. As a compromise it was finally 
decided : 

(i) Maine should be admitted as a free state, and Mis- 
souri as a slave state. 

(2) The Louisiana Purchase should be divided by the 
parallel of 36'' 30' and in all territory north of the line, 
excepting Missouri, slavery should be forever pro- 
hibited. 
It was generally thought that this Compromise had 
settled the dispute regarding slavery by restricting its area, 
but because of the acquisition of new territory, and be- 
cause of the difference in the industrial and social con- 
ditions of the North and South, it could result only in post- 
poning the final conflict. 



202 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

IV Growth of National Unity 

Just as at the time of the Revolution the danger from 
England had forced the colonies to act in unity, during this 
period the continual interference of Europe in American 
affairs, directly and indirectly, in a general way tended to 
the growth of American national unity. Especially was this 
true of the war of 1812. The resentment of English and 
French outrages united the people as nothing else had done 
and the successful conclusion of the war strengthened this 
unity of feeling. This war practically ended direct inter- 
ference of the European nations in American affairs and 
left the nation united and in a position to develop a true 
national life. The acquisition of Louisiana was nationaliz- 
ing in its effects, for in its purchase, organization and gov- 
ernment the national government was forced to assume and 
exercise powers far greater than any specifically granted by 
the Constitution. This forced the Republican party to adopt 
the nationalizing policy to which it was at first so much 
opposed, and as the Republican party was supreme from 
1801 to the end of this period, its work in advancing this 
policy was of great importance. The rapid growth of the 
West was a most important factor in the growth of national 
unity. The men who settled this new country went into 
the West under the protection and government of the nation, 
not of the state ; their state governments had to be created 
by their own efforts, and naturally were subordinate to the 
national government in every way, in their minds. There 
was no state jealousy which would tend to hinder the exer- 
cise of national authority, hence the influence of the West 
was strongly for nationality. The Supreme Court of the 
United States in a series of important decisions established 
still more firmly the supremacy of the national government, 
and in many cases specifically defined the limits of the state 
governments. Among the more important of these cases 
were: 



Growth of the Nation 203 

(i) McCulloch vs. Maryland. In this case the state 
of Maryland attempted to tax the United States Bank, but 
the Supreme Court held that it could not be taxed because 
it was in part a national institution. 

(2) Fletcher vs. Peck. In this case the court held that 
the state of Georgia could not revoke grants of lands even 
if they had been obtained by fraud, because it would be the 
violation of contract which the national constitution says 
shall not be impaired. 

(3) Dartmouth College Case. In this case New Hamp- 
shire attempted to modify the charter of Dartmouth Col- 
lege, but the court held that it could not be done because it 
would impair the obligation of contract. 

The chief influence working against the growth of nation- 
ality was slavery. While it was not an active factor during 
this period, yet it was surely though slowly undermining the 
unity of the nation by causing the North and South to develop 
industrially and socially along entirely different lines. Thus 
different interests sprang up in the two sections, and the con- 
ditions which caused the conflict of the following period were 
definitely shaping themselves. The attitude of the two sec- 
tions of the country, and the strength of slavery in the South, 
is shown in the Missouri Compromise which was the first 
struggle of the long conflict that came to predominate all 
questions and to threaten the existence of the nation. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Growth of the Nation ) 

I 

Compare the total area of the United States at the close of the Revo- 
lutionary War with that at the end of this period (1828). Compare the 
settled area of the United States at these different times showing the 
direction in which the settled area was growing. Compare the population 
at the close of the Revolution with that in 1828. (Each pupil should 
draw a map illustrating the growth of the total and settled areas of the 
United States.) 



204 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

II 

Why did settlers in colonial times move westward along the Ohio? 
What caused the first large immigration to the country west of the 
Alleghanies ? What conditions have always caused a rush of settlers 
westward? How did foreign immigration aid in this westward movement? 
Explain fully why industrial and social conditions in the western country 
north of the Ohio were very similar to those which existed in the Northenl 
Atlantic states, and why the industrial and social conditions in the western 
country south of the Ohio were very similar to those which existed in 
the Southern Atlantic states. 

Ill 

In what way did the Ordinance of 1787 affect the organization of all 
the western territory? Describe the organization of new states. Describe 
the character of the constitutions of the new western states. To what 
conditions was the character of these constitutions due? How did the 
growth of the West make the matter of internal improvements one of 
national importance ? What is meant by internal improvements ? Describe 
the work of this kind done by the national government during this period. 
Describe the building of the Erie canal and discuss the importance of 
this canal. Describe the work done by the other states. 

What caused the abolition of slavery in the northern states? How 
was the territory west of the Alleghanies divided as to slavery? Why did 
the application of Missouri for admission to the Union cause a struggle 
over slavery? Describe the conditions in the national legislatuie which 
made the southern states anxious to have Missouri admitted as a slave 
state. What was the attitude of the northern states? How was the matter 
finally compromised? What was the effect of this compromise? 

IV 

How did the interference of Europe in American affairs aid the growth 
of American national unity? What was the effect of the War of 1812 
on national life? How did the acquisition of Louisiana aid in the growth 
of national unity? In what way did the development of the west affect 
this growth ? Show how the Supreme Court by important decisions estab- 
lished more firmly the supremacy of the national government. Show the 
importance of each of these decisions. How was slavery working against 
the growth of nationality? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the growth of the L^nited States in territory and population 
during this period. Discuss the causes of westward migration. Discuss 
the industrial and social conditions of the western country and their rela- 
tion to those of the Atlantic states. Describe the formation of new states 
in the western territory. Discuss internal improvements during this period. 
Discuss the Missouri Compromise. Discuss the growth of national unity 
during this period. 



I)istitHtio)ial Life 205 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

During the period from 1789 to 1828, institutional life in the 
United States was gradually changing from colonial conditions. 
In the matter of government and social life, there was a marked 
growth toward democracy. The aristocratic forms, ceremonies 
and distinctions based on class, were gradually dying out except 
in the South. The democratic ideas that led to the election of 
Jackson in 1828, worked a great change in social conditions. This 
period also witnessed the beginning of the industrial growth and 
expansion of the nation. In religious affairs a much more liberal 
spirit gradually developed, and there was also a distinct improve- 
ment in education. 

I Industri.\l Conditions 

The underlying factor of the industrial development of the 
nation, especially in the South, during this and the following 
period was slavery. While its importance as an industrial 
factor was not recognized at this time, it was determining 
to a large extent the development of the nation by causing the 
development of different interests in the northern and south- 
ern sections. The invention of the cotton gin and the great 
improvement in weaving machinery which increased many 
fold the demand for raw cotton in both Europe and America, 
made slaves of more value not only in the cotton raising 
states but also in those states that raised slaves for the market. 
These conditions served to fasten slavery still more firmly 
on the South, while in the northern states where slavery did 
not exist to any extent, other interests grew up. Slavery 
caused the laborers from foreign countries to avoid the 
South and to go into the North where free labor prevailed. 
Thus the North rapidly outgrew the South in free population. 
Since by the character of its labor, the South could take 
little part in the commercial and manufacturing development 
of the nation, it soon began to fall behind the northern states 
in wealth. Thus the two sections of the nation continued 
to drift apart industrially. 



206 NATIOIn[AL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

1. Transportation and Comviunication 

While the means of transportation and communication 
existing in 1828 seem very poor when compared with 
those of the present time, they were far in advance of those 
of the colonies. The invention and introduction of steam- 
boats was the main feature of improvement in trans- 
portation during this time, and was very important in its 
effect on both industrial and social conditions. The steam- 
boat was one of the main factors in opening up the wes- 
tern country which exerted so much influence on the whole 
institutional life of the nation. The building of roads, 
canals, and bridges by the various states also had an 
important effect on industrial conditions, because it brought 
the sections of the country together and broadened the field 
of industrial expansion. 

2. Agriculture 

During this period the nation was, as a whole, agricul- 
tural. Although other industries had been established in 
the northern states, the South had remained entirely agri- 
cultural. This, as has been stated, was due largely to 
slavery. At the time of the formation of the Constitution 
there had been a strong sentiment against slavery in some 
of the southern states, but this gradually died out after the 
invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793. This 
invention made the cotton crop one of immense value in the 
South. Rice, tobacco and cotton were the great southern 
staples, but Virginia and neighboring states became wheat 
producers also during this period, and raised large quan- 
tities for export. In the middle and northern states large 
amounts of food products were raised and exported, but 
commercial and manufacturing interests took much of the 
attention of the people of those sections. The western 
countrv was almost entirelv agricultural. 



Institutional Life 207 

3. Commerce 

Commerce now became a very important factor in 
national development. Dnring the Revolntion the com- 
merce of the nation was almost entirely destroyed, but it 
soon sprang up again. The constant warfare of European 
nations in the first part of this period gave America a great 
opportunity, and a large foreign commerce was built up 
by the middle and northern states. Jefferson's Embargo 
policy and the war of 1812 for a time hindered the develop- 
ment of commerce, but in general the period was one of 
great commercial prosperity and expansion. 

4. Manufactures 

At the time of the adoption of the Constitution, American 
manufacturing consisted chiefly of the household manufac- 
ture of articles of common use. Inventions of machinery 
and the great increase in the amount of cotton raised by 
the South led to the early establishment of cotton mills in 
New England, and this industry increased until by 1828 
hundreds of thousands of men and women were employed 
in the many great factories in which were invested many 
millions of dollars. The rise of woolen mills was nearly 
as rapid though not beginning so early. The iron industry 
was developed in Pennsylvania to a considerable extent, 
and the foundation laid for its greater development in the 
following period. Jefferson's Embargo Policy and the War 
of 18 1 2 were very beneficial to American manufactures, 
for by shutting out foreign commerce they forced the 
people to establish manufactures of various kinds, and by 
the injury done to commerce they served to turn capital 
to manufacturing instead. By 1816 the manufactures 
had become of such importance that it was deemed neces- 
sary to establish a protective tariff for their encouragement. 
By 1828 the value of manufactures in the United States 
amounted to manv hundreds of millions of dollars. This 



208 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

advance had taken place al"i""<" entirely in the northern 
states, the South having doile very little in the way of 
building up manufactures or commerce. 

II Social Conditions 

During the first part of this period the social conditions 
were much like those of Colonial times, the same aristo- 
cratic ideas in a measure prevailing. But there was a distinct 
advance during this period, especially during the latter part, 
in democratic ideals and modes of living. This was due 
largely to the development of the West, which was very 
democratic, owing to the manner of its settlement and to the 
equality of its settlers. This growth in democracy is shown 
in many ways. Washington was inaugurated with a great 
deal of pomp and ceremony ; this was largely done away with 
by Jefferson, and still greater simplicity was introduced by 
later Presidents in accordance with the democratic ten- 
dencies of the times. At the time of the adoption of the 
Constitution the dress of the wealthier classes was very rich 
and elaborate, as during colonial times ; this too was changed 
gradually, men of all classes coming to wear more nearly 
the same style and quality of clothing. The growth in dem- 
ocracy is also shown in the extension of the franchise. While 
in 1800 only about one person in thirty-five could vote, by 
1828 about one person in ten had the privilege of the suffrage. 
This change was due to the abolishing of property and other 
qualifications, in which the new western states led. These 
democratic ideas were introduced much more slowly in the 
South on account of the plantation system of living, and 
the holding of slaves, which served to keep up class dis- 
tinctions which were rapidly dying out in the commercial and 
manufacturing states. 

Ill Government 

There was little change in the institution of government 
during this period, the main lines of the development of the 



Institutional Life 209 

United States in this respect having been laid down during 
the preceding periods. The organization and government of 
all the newly acquired territory was based on the Ordinance 
of 1787. The formation of state governments proceeded on 
the same lines as those of the state governments formed 
during the Revolution, which in turn were based on the gov- 
ernments of the colonies. Changes in the national govern- 
ment consisted merely in the rational development of the 
principles of the Constitution. 

IV Religion 

During this period the old intolerance was broken down 
and complete religious liberty was established. At the time 
of the Revolution religious qualifications were required of 
public officers and in many cases of voters, in nearly all the 
states. These were largely done away with during the period 
immediately following the Revolution, and Church and State 
soon became completely separated in all the states. Many 
new sects came into existence, and national organizations of 
the various churches were formed. 

V Education 

While the advance in education and in the intellectual life 
of the nation is not so remarkable as that in other respects, 
the improvement over the conditions of Colonial times is 
considerable. Common schools were established throughout 
the western country as they were also in the eastern part of 
the United States. These schools were provided for by the 
sale of public lands, and by taxation. Numerous academies 
and colleges sprang up, and high schools began to be es- 
tablished in the East. Improved methods of teaching and 
study were introduced to some extent, and greater attention 
was paid to the sciences than during the colonial period. 
In the matter of the general education of the people there was 
a distinct advance, this being a natural part of the demo- 
cratic tendencies of the period. 



210 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Industrial Conditions) 

I 

Explain how slavery was causing the industrial conditions of the 
North and South to develop along different lines. What was the effect 
of the invention of the cotton-gin on the growth of slavery in the South? 
Why did the North outgrow the South in free population? Why did the 
South fall behind the North in wealth? 

Discuss the invention of the steam boat and its importance in the 
opening up of the West. How did the building of roads, canals and bridges 
by the states affect industrial conditions? 

How did cotton come to be the leading southern product? Describe 
the agricultural conditions in Virginia and neighboring states. Why was 
agriculture becoming of less relative importance in the North? 

What was the condition of American commerce at the close of the 
Revolution? How did European affairs during the first part of this period 
aid the commerce of the United States? What sections of the country built 
up a large foreign commerce? What section of the country made little 
advance in this direction? Why? What was the effect of Jefferson's 
embargo policy and the War of 1812 on American commerce? 

What was the condition of manufactures in the United States at the 
close of the Revolution? What caused the establishment of cotton mills 
in New England ? Describe the growth of the cotton spinning and weaving 
industries. What other manufactures were developed in New England 
and the middle states? What was the effect of Jefferson's embargo 
policy and the War of 1812 on American manufactures? Describe the 
growth of manufactures. Why did the South do little toward building 
up manufactures? 

II 

Compare the ceremonies of Washington's inauguration with those of 
Jtfferson's. What does this show as to the advance of democracy in social 
conditions? How did the development of the West aid the growth of 
democratic ideals and modes of living? What general changes in dress 
were made during this period? How is the breaking down of class dis- 
tinctions shown in the political life of the nation? Wliy did the democratic 
ideas gain a hold more slowly in the South than in other parts of the 
country ? 

HI 

What changes were made in national and state government during this 
period? 



Institutional Life 211 

IV 

What change in religious conditions occurred during this period? 

V 
Discuss the estabhshment of common schools in the western country. 
How were these schools provided for? What can you say of the advance 
in the general education of the people of the United States during this 
period? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the effect of slavery upon the industrial development of the 
United States during this period. Discuss the improvements in means 
of transportation and communication, and their effect on industrial and 
social life. Discuss agricultural conditions in the various sections of the 
nation. Discuss the growth of American commerce and manufactures. 
Discuss the changes in social conditions. Show that there was a marked 
growth toward democracy in government and social life during this 
period. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

A POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Meaning of Jackson's Election 

Mc. 301 ; T. 249-251 ; M. 240-241 

II Political AIethods 

1. The Spoils System 

Mc. 294-295; T. 251-252; M. 241-242 

2. The Nominating Convention 

Mc. 306 

3. Campaigns 

Mc. 315-316; T. 275-276; M. 258-259 

4. Party Organization and Party Platforms 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

III Political Parties 

1. The Democratic Party 

Mc. 311, 312, 346, 352-353- 360-361; T. 286, 
306, 316, 322 

2. The Whig Party 

Mc. 307, 312, 316, 334-335. 352; T. 248, 306 

3. The Republican Party 

Mc. 354-355, 363; T. 315-316, 322 

B FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

I The Tariff 

1. The Tariff of 1828; Nullification and Secession 

Mc. 303-305; T. 247-248, 254-256; M. 245-249 

2. The Compromise Tariff of i8jj 

Mc. 305; T. 256; M. 249 



Political Methods and Political Parties 213 

3. The Walker Tariff, 1846 
T. 296 — 297 

II Destruction of the National Bank 

:\Ic. 305-308 ; T. 253-254 ; M. 245 

III The Panic of 1837 

1. Era of Speculation 

Mc. 308-309; T. 272; M. 253-254 

2. The Specie Circtilar 

Mc. 309 ; T. 272 

3. Distribution of the Surplus 

Mc. 309-310; T. 270-271 

4. The Crisis 

Mc. 3 10-3 II ; T. 272; M. 253 

IV The Independent or Sub-Treasury System 

Mc. 311-312; T. 273-274, 296; M. 254-255 

WESTWARD EXPANSION 

I Annexation of Texas, 1845 

Mc. 320-322; T. 284-287; AI. 262 

II The Mexican War, 1846-1848 

1. Causes 

Mc. 326; T. 289-290; M. 265-266 

2. Campaigns 

Mc. 327-328; T. 290-293; M. 266-268 

3. Results 

(a) Territorial 

Mc. 333-334; T. 293; M. 269 

(b) Political 

Mc. 329, 334; T. 298; M. 269 



214 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

III The Oregon Boundary, 1846 

Mc. 322-326; T. 294-296; M. 264-265 

D SLAVERY 

I The Abolition Movement 

1. Groivth of Sentiment Against Slavery 

Mc. 334-336, 343. 352, 357; T. 270, 303, 308; 
M. 275-276, 283 

2. Rise of Abolitionists 

Mc. 313; T. 267-268 

3. Anti-Abolition Sentiment 

Mc. 313-314; T. 269 

4. The Gag Resolutions 

Mc. 314-315; T. 269 

II Expansion of Slave Territory: The Compromise 

OF 1850 

Mc. 337-343; T. 297-298, 301-303; M. 269-270, 

273-274 

III The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854 

Mc. 347; T. 309; M. 278-279 

IV The Struggle for Kansas, 1854-1861 

^Ic. 347-352, 357-358; T. 313-314; M. 279-280 

V The Dred Scott Decision, 1857 

Mc. 355-356; T. 31(^318; M. 279-280 

VI The Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858 

^Ic. 358-359 

VII The Election of Lincoln, i860; Secession, 1860-1861 

Mc. 363, 378-382; T. 323-328; IVI. 286-290 



Political Methods and Political Parties 215 

E INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

I Industrial Conditions 

Mc. 285-291, 365-376; H. IV, 41-44: T. 258-264, 
281-282, 304-308, 310-312; M. 249-251, 257, 290- 
292 

1. Means of Transportation and Communication 

Mc. 285-291, 368-370, 372, 374-375; T. 259- 
264, 281, 308; M. 237-238, 249-250, 257 

2. Agriculture 

T. 310 

3. Manufactures 

Mc. 289, 370-374, 376; T. 259, 263-264, 304; 
M. 277 

4. Commerce 

Mc. 374; T. 304 

5. Development of Mineral Resources 

Mc. 337-338; T. 264, 320; M. 249, 270-272, 
284-285 

II Social Conditions 

Mc. 375; H. IV, 1-74; T. 265-267; M. 239-240 

III Government 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

IV Religion 

Mc. 291-292; T. 282-284: ]M. 255-257 

V Education 

T. 265-266; M. 251-252 



WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

As has already been stated the characteristics of this period were 
the westward growth of the nation in population, wealth and ter- 
ritory, and the struggle over the extension of slavery into this 
western territory. During the preceding period the nation had 
thrown off its colonial traditions and had become independent of 
Europe in fact as well as in name. The nation had rid itself of 
European interference and the great question of slavery and 
other important domestic questions which had been gradually 
shaping themselves, now came to the front, and the life of the 
nation centered around them during this entire period. 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Meaning of Jackson's Election 

The election of Jackson marks the beginning of a new 
epoch in the history of the United States. It marks the ad- 
vance of democracy far beyond that of the time of Jefferson. 
To a considerable extent this was due to the development 
of the West. The new western states represented the rising 
democracy — the belief that one man is as good as another, 
irrespective of his wealth or birth. All of the Presidents 
before Jackson, however, belonged to the wealthy, cultured, 
and aristocratic class. Jackson w^as one of the common 
people. His life had been an almost continuous struggle 
with poverty and adverse circumstances. He was blunt in 
manner and speech, headstrong and independent. He typi- 
fied the rough frontier life of the western states. His elec- 
tion marks the complete triumph of democracy in the United 
States. 

II Political Methods 

I. The Spoils System 

The Spoils System consists in the giving of as many 
offices as possible to those who have helped elect success- 



Political Methods and Political Parties 217 

fill candidates. Almost every officer vip to the President 
of the United States has the power of appointing men 
and women to office. If the candidate elected be a Demo- 
crat he nsnally appoints Democrats to office; if he be a 
Republican he usually appoints Republicans. It does not 
matter how faithfully an officer may have performed his 
duties, his position is usually given to some member of the 
successful party, and often the new officer is less com- 
petent than the one whose place he fills. As a result of 
this condition of affairs, public business frequently suffers 
serious injury. 

Jackson was responsible for the introduction of the 
''Spoils System" into the politics of the United States. 
He claimed that rotation in office was democratic and a 
good thing ; that to the victor belonged the spoils of office 
— that the successful candidate might fill the offices under 
his control with personal followers. During the first nine 
months of his administration, Jackson removed more than 
one thousand men from office, whereas all of the preceding 
Presidents together had removed less than one hundred, 
and then only for good cause, and not on account of their 
political connections. Since Jackson's administration the 
officers of both parties have appointed men and women 
to office because of their political influence. During the last 
twenty-five years the evil effects of this policy have been 
greatly lessened by the enaction of national legislation 
known as the Civil Service Laws. These laws compel 
the President of the United States to select certain officials 
by means of examination, and the officers thus selected 
cannot be removed except for just cause. 

2. The Nominating Conz'ention 

Up to Jackson's second term the candidates for presi- 
dent and vice-president of the United States had always 
been nominated by a caucus of party leaders in Congress 
or bv state legislatures. The growth of democratic ideas 



218 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

led the people to demand a more direct control of such 
nominations, and as a result the candidates for the presi- 
dency and vice-presidency in the campaign of 1832 were 
nominated by national party conventions composed of 
delegates elected by the people of the various states. 

3. Campaigns 

Up to the beginning of this period comparatively little 
interest was taken in presidential elections by the people 
at large. The presidential electors were not nominated 
by, nor responsible to, any political party, and therefore 
the people had little partisan interest in their election. 
Under these circumstances the electors exercised a more 
or less independent choice. The growth of democracy, 
however, changed this. After the candidates for presi- 
dent and vice-president came to be nominated by national 
party conventions, and the presidential electors in the 
various states came to be nominated by state party con- 
ventions, thus being practically pledged to vote for their 
party nominees, it became necessary to introduce new and 
active campaign methods in order to rouse the interest of 
the people and to win popular support for the candidates. 
Stump-speaking, torch-light processions, and spectacular 
displays of various kinds, such as would rouse enthusiasm 
among the people, were a part of this new order of things. 
This method of conducting a campaign has been continued 
to the present time, and is used in elections for public 
officers of all kinds. 

4. Party Organization and Party Platforms 

Strong party organizations or "machines" had already 
been built up in many of the cities, and during Jackson's 
administration the organization of national parties as they 
exist at the present time first came into existence. It was 
at this time also that party platforms first came into use. 



Political Metliods and Political Parties 219 

III Political Parties 

During Jackson's administration parties became thoroughly 
re-organized. Jackson's followers were called Democrats 
and those opposed to his policy, under the leadership of Clay 
and Webster formed the National Republican partv, later 
calling themselves Whigs. 

I. The Democratic Party 

The Democratic party as organized in Jackson's time 
has never been broken up, although the leaders and issues 
have changed, and it has been and is at the present time a 
powerful party. The Democratic presidents during this 
period were Jackson, 1829-1837; Van Buren, 1837-1841 ; 
Polk, 1845-1849; Pierce, 1853-1857; and Buchanan, 1857- 
1861. The first issue upon which the Democratic party 
took a stand was the National Bank which it succeeded in 
destroying. Later in this period slavery became the pre- 
dominant issue, and the Democrats as a party were pro- 
slavery, though in the campaign of i860 the party split 
on this issue. The most important work of the Demo- 
cratic party during this period was the establishment of 
the Independent Treasury System, the Annexation of 
Texas, the inauguration and management of the war with 
Mexico, the reduction of the tariff in 1846 to an almost 
free-trade basis, and the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska 
Act in 1854. 

2. The Whig Party 

The general principles on which the Whig party was 
formed under the leadership of Clay and Webster were 
broad construction of the Constitution, internal improve- 
ments by the aid of the National government and a pro- 
tective tariff. The Whig party was the one great rival of 
the Democratic party between 1834 and 1852, and twice 
succeeded in gaining control of the National government — 



220 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

in the Harrison-Tyler administration, 1841-1845, and in 
the Taylor-Filhnore administration, 1849-1853. This 
party did not succeed in putting into effect any of its most 
important principles. While the Compromise of 1850 was 
a Whig measure, it was an unfortunate measure for the 
party as it alienated many in the North where a large part 
of the Whigs' strength lay. The Whigs tried to avoid 
taking a definite stand on the slavery question and it was 
this attitude that caused their downfall early in the fifties. 

3. The Repitblican Party 

The development of the slavery issue caused changes 
in the Democratic party, the breaking up of the Whig 
party and the rise of several minor parties in the latter 
part of this period. The various elements of all these 
parties that were opposed to the extension of slavery united 
to form a new party which took the name Republican, 
This party rapidly gained strength in the North, and in 
i860 under the leadership of Lincoln first carried the 
National election. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Political Alethods and Political Parties) 

I 

Compare Jackson with the preceding presidents as to social standing 
wealth and education. Compare his ideas of democratic or popular gov- 
ernment with those of Jefferson. Explain the meaning of Jackson's elec- 
tion. In what way is his election connected with the growth of the West 
in influence and power? 

II 

Explain the Spoils System. Why did Jackson introduce this into 
national politics ? Discuss the evil effects of this system. E.xplain the 
nature and purpose of the Civil Service Laws. Describe how candidates 
for the presidency and vice-presidency had been nominated before Jackson's 
administrations. Discuss the conditions which led to the nominating of 
candidates for the presidency and vice-presidency by national political con- 
ventions. Why had the people at large taken little interest in presidential 



Political Methods and Political Parties 221 

elections before this time? Describe the methods of campaigning intro- 
duced during this period. What was their object? Were they successful? 
Describe the building up of party organizations. What is a party platform 
and when was it first used ? What do these various changes in political 
methods show as to the growth of democracy? 

Ill 

Describe the origin and organization of the Democratic party. Discuss 
its principles. Name the leaders and more important measures of this 
party during this period. 

Describe the organization of the Whig party. Who were its leaders 
and what were its main principles? Name its more important measures 
and discuss their effect on the party. What caused the downfall of the 
Whig party? 

Discuss the origin of the Republican party. Who were its leaders? 
What brought it into prominence ? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the meaning of Jackson's election. Discuss the Spoils System, 
its origin, development and effect. Discuss the origin of nominating 
conventions and party organizations. Describe the new methods introduced 
into political campaigns during this period, and discuss their object and 
effect. Discuss the reorganization of political parties during Jackson's 
administration. Discuss the leaders, principles and important measures of 
the Democratic party during this period. Discuss the organization, leaders 
and measures of the Whig party. Discuss the origin of the Republican 
party. 



222 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

1. The Tariff of 1828 ; Nullification and Secession 

Just before the presidential election of 1828, Congress 
enacted a tariff law which, because of its high and absurd 
duties, is known as the "Tariff of Abominations." The 
tariff was bitterly denounced in the southern states. The 
North had developed large manufacturing interests which, 
it was claimed, needed a protective tariff for encourage- 
ment. The South had remained entirely agricultural, and 
the southerners claimed that a high tariff was of no ad- 
vantage to them, but rather a disadvantage as it tended to 
raise the price of those things which they had to buy, and 
did not raise the price of those things which they sold. 
Protests were made by the legislatures of several of the 
southern states. Calhoun, speaking for the South, drew 
up an "Exposition" setting forth the doctrine that the 
nation was a mere compact of sovereign states ; that a state 
could nullify a law of Congress which it judged to be 
oppressive and unconstitutional ; and that a state had the 
constitutional right to withdraw from the Union. The 
legislature of South Carolina, taking this view of the ques- 
tion, passed resolutions nullifying the tariff laws. Jack- 
son, however, threatened to hang as traitors all who forci- 
bly resisted the collection of tariff duties. His firm stand, 
together with a modification in the tariff, checked the seces- 
sion movement. 

2. The Compromise Tariff of 18^3 

The strong opposition of the South to the "Tariff of 
Abominations" led to its modification in 1832 and in the 
following year to the passage of a Compromise tariff law 
which provided for the gradual reduction of tariff duties 
during a period of ten years until the low rates imposed 
by the tariff of 1816 should be reached. 



Financial Legislation 223 

3. The Walker Tariff, 1846 

The limit provided by the Compromise Tariff was 
reached in 1843. ^Y that time the idea of free trade had 
gained strength and this brought about the passage of a 
new tariff law in 1846 which made still further reduction 
in the tariff rates, and changed the method of assessing 
duties. 

II Destruction of the National Bank 

The National Bank, chartered first in 1791 and re-charter- 
ed in 1816 was the repository of government funds and 
agent for the government in the management of its financial 
affairs. The fact that this bank was under the general super- 
vision of the national government gave it a certain stability, 
and the existence of such a bank tended to keep the financial 
affairs of the nation on a solid basis. Jackson, however, 
was strongly opposed to this bank, claiming that it had be- 
come a political machine and was an "un-American mon- 
opoly." Four years before its charter expired he accom- 
plished its destruction by securing the withdrawal of all the 
national funds from the bank. These funds he had placed in 
state banks. Through his influence Congress refused in 
1836 to renew the bank's charter. 

III The Panic of 1837 

I. Era of Speculation 

The distribution of the government deposits among 
state banks brought about the creation of a large number 
of state banks which proceeded to issue paper money to an 
amount far in excess of the gold and silver which they kept 
on hand for the purpose of redemption. A great deal of 
speculation was carried on at this time, owing to the open- 
ing up of the western country and to the advance in in- 
dustrial conditions. The great amount of paper money 



224 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

issued increased this speculation by making it easy for the 
people to borrow money. 

2. The Specie Circular 

A large part of the money paid for government land was 
the paper currency of the state banks, and a large part of 
the national taxes was also paid in the same money. As 
the state banks had issued a great deal more currency than 
they had gold and silver to redeem, the people who held 
this paper money could not exchange all of it or nearly all 
of it for gold and silver. This caused the people to look 
upon paper money with suspicion, and as a result a dollar 
of it became of less value than a dollar of gold or silver. 
Jackson saw that the government could not continue to 
accept this paper money for the payment of taxes, because 
it would result in a loss to the government as it was of 
less value than gold or silver. He therefore issued an 
order that all United States taxes must be paid in gold or 
silver, and that the payments for public land must be made 
in the same money. This order of Jackson's is known as 
the Specie Circular because it provided that all payments 
made to the government by its citizens must be made in 
specie — that is, in gold or silver. This circular of Jack- 
son's caused the people to become still more suspicious of 
the paper money issued by the state banks, and caused this 
money to become of still less value. 

3. Distribution of the Surplus 

By the middle of 1836 all the national debt had been 
paid and a surplus of over $40,000,000 had accumulated 
and had been placed in the state banks. Congress passed 
a bill providing for the distribution of this surplus by in- 
stallments among the various states as loans. This dis- 
tribution made necessary the removal of the government 
deposits from many of the state banks, thus greatly re- 



Financial Legislation 225 

ducing' their supply of hard money. This, together with 
the Specie Circular, caused paper money to become almost 
worthless. 

4. T/ic Crisis 

The Specie Circular caused men to take their paper 
money to the banks at once and ask for gold and silver in 
return. But the banks had not the gold and silver with 
which to redeem it, for, as has been stated, many of them 
had issued a far larger quantity of paper money than they 
could redeem even with the government funds which they 
had on deposit, and the sudden removal of these government 
deposits made their condition still worse. As a result they 
were compelled to close their doors. Paper money, being 
thus discredited, declined rapidly in value; specie pay- 
ments were everywhere suspended ; hundreds of business 
firms failed ; thousands of men and women lost everything 
they had possessed ; factories w^ere forced to suspend opera- 
tion ; and thus financial panic swept over the nation. 

IV The Independent or Sttb-Treasury System 

President Van Buren, in order to protect the national gov- 
ernment, induced Congress to pass what is known as the 
Independent Treasury Act. By the terms of this act the 
United States was enabled to erect in the various states such 
government buildings as should be required in which to de- 
posit the public money of the nation. This system, com- 
monly known as the Sub-Treasury System, still exists and 
has proven very satisfactory. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Financial Legislation) 

I 
Explain the tariff of 1828. Compare it with former tariffs as regards 
protective features. Explain why the North and South did not agree on 
tariff duties. Discuss in full how the South received the tariff of 1828. 
Explain the Compromise Tariff of 1833 and discuss the conditions which 
caused its passage. Discuss the Walker Tariff of 1846. 



226 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

II 

Why was Jackson opposed to the National Bank? Explain the value 
of this bank. Discuss its destruction. 

Ill 

When the National Bank was destroyed what became of the gov- 
ernment funds that were deposited in it? How did the destruction of this 
bank cause the creation of many state banks ? Explain what led to the 
issuing of large sums of paper money. Why was this paper money not so 
good as gold and silver money? Explain the meaning of speculation. What 
led to a great deal of speculation about 1837? 

What caused a dollar of the paper money issued by the state banks 
to become of less value than a dollar of gold and silver money'? What 
was the Specie Circular that was issued by Jackson ? Why did he issue 
this circular? How did it affect the value of paper money? 

How did the distribution of the surplus money of the government 
to the various states, affect the state banks and the value of paper monej'^? 
What is meant by specie payments? Why did the refusal of the state 
banks to pay out gold and silver for paper money lower still more the 
value of paper money? Explain how the wild speculation already referred 
to, and the decreasing value of paper money affected the business of the 
country and brought on the Financial Crisis of 1837. 

IV 

Explain the Independent Treasury System. Why was it created ? 
What is its value? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Give a full discussion of the Tariff of 1828 and the Compromise Tariff 
of 1833. Give a full discussion of the National Bank showing clearly how 
its destruction led to the Financial Panic of 1837. Discuss the Independ- 
ent Treasury System. 



Westward Expansion 227 

WESTWARD EXPANSION 

I Annexation of Texas, 1845 

By the treaty of 1819 the United States ceded to Spain its 
claim to Texas, and when Mexico became independent of 
Spain two years later, Texas was included in the new Re- 
public of Mexico. The Mexican government was very lib- 
eral in granting tracts of land to settlers in this territory, 
and Americans in great numbers — especially from the South 
— took advantage of this policy and settled in Texas. During 
Jackson's administration offers were made to Mexico for the 
purchase of Texas but were refused. Meanwhile coloniza- 
tion went on steadily with the definite purpose on the part of 
the southern leaders of the ultimate annexation of Texas to 
the United States in order to secure a valuable area for the 
expansion of slavery. When the American settlers became 
strong enough they rebelled against Mexico and in a few 
battles defeated the Mexican army. They then, in 1836, 
established the Republic of Texas, though Mexico did not 
recognize its independence. The next step — annexation — 
was strongly opposed by the northern states because of 
slavery which existed and would surely expand there. How- 
ever, in 1845 Texas was admitted to the Union, and thus the 
slave area was greatly enlarged. The western boundary 
of this new territory was undecided, and the United States 
sent troops to enforce its claims, thus virtually forcing war 
upon Alexico. 

II The Mexican War, 1846-1848 

I . Causes 

The causes of this war were the desire on the part of 
the Sovith for more slave territory which led to the annexa- 
tion of Texas, and the occupation by United States troops 
of territory on the Rio Grande claimed by Mexico. 



228 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

2. Campaigns 

This war was a series of successes for the American 
army. There were but two campaigns — one under Taylor 
on the Rio Grande, and another under Scott, who cap- 
tured Santa Cruz and then marched upon and captured 
the City of Mexico. 

3. Results 

(a) Territorial Results 

The territorial result of this war was the acquisition 
by the United States of the territory including California, 
Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico and part of Colo- 
rado. The United States paid Mexico $18,000,000 for 
this territory. 

(b) Political Results 

This war re-opened and extended the slavery ques- 
tion, and its political results, therefore, were of the ut- 
most importance. Representative Wilmot of Pennsylva- 
nia proposed an amendment known as the "Wilmot Pro- 
viso" to a bill pending in Congress. This proviso repre- 
sented the position of the North regarding slavery in the 
territory secured from Mexico, and declared that slavery 
should not exist in any of this territory. It failed to 
pass Congress, but its discussion throughout the country 
tended to create a still stronger feeling between the North 
and the South on the slavery question. 

Ill The Oregon Boundary, 1846 

The territory on the Pacific Coast between the forty-second 
parallel and the parallel of 54° 40' was called Oregon, and 
was claimed by both England and the United States. Both 
nations sent settlers into this territory and held it jointly. 
The large immigration of Americans into Oregon made the 
United States anxious to settle the northern boundary defin- 



JVeshvard Expansion 229 

itely and to acquire as much of this territory as possible. In 
order to make the North wilhng to admit Texas into the 
Union, the Democrats took up the acquisition of this entire 
territory, and made it, together with the annexation of Texas, 
the issue in the election of 1844. According to their promise, 
after the annexation of Texas, the Oregon matter was taken 
up and the present boundary line was agreed upon with 
England. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Westward Expansion) 

I 

Explain the conditions which led to the independence of Texas. 
Explain the conditions which led to its annexation to the United States. 
Why was the South especially anxious for the annexation of Texas? Why 
was the North opposed to its annexation? 

II 

Explain how the United States forced war on Mexico. Why was the 
South in favor of this war and why was the North opposed to it? Discuss 
briefly the campaign of Taylor. Discuss briefly the campaign of Scott. 

What territory did the United States secure as a result of this war, 
and afterwards by purchase from Mexico? How did this new territory 
affect the slavery question ? Explain the provisions of Representative Wil- 
mot's proposed amendment — known as the Wilmot Proviso — to a bill 
pending in Congress regarding the territory secured from Mexico. What 
effect did the discussion of this amendment have ? 

Ill 
Explain how the United States secured the territory of Oregon, and 
how the question between England and the United States regarding this 
territory was finally settled. 

Questions for Compositions .\nd Examinations 

Discuss in full the conditions which led to the War with Mexico. Dis- 
cuss in full the results of this war. 



230 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

SLAVERY 

I The Abolition Movement 

I. Grozuth of Sentiment Against Slaz'ery 

Industrial conditions in the North led to the gradual 
abolition of slavery. Still more slowly a moral sentiment 
against it had grown up, and by the close of the War of 
i8t2 the two interests — industrial and moral — had brought 
about abolition of slavery in all the New England and mid- 
dle states save Delaware, and the prohibition of slavery 
in the Northwest Territory. In the South, on the other 
hand, slavery had become still more firmly entrenched in 
the industrial and social life. The growth of the strength 
of slavery in the South was shown plainly in the Missouri 
Compromise. For fourteen years after this Compromise 
there was a lull in the agitation on the question of slavery, 
but the abolitionists then brought it forcibly to public at- 
tention. 

" 2. Rise of Abolitionists 

The number of people actually opposed to slavery on 
moral grounds was very small up to 1831. At that time an 
abolition paper called "The Liberator" was started by 
William Lloyd Garrison, and abolition societies were form- 
ed throughout the North. The Abolitionists advocated the 
immediate freeing of the slaves, and circulated pamphlets, 
papers and magazines throughout the United States, setting 
forth their doctrines. Although the Abolitionists were very 
active, the number of people in the North who wished to 
interfere with slavery in the Southern states, increased very 
slowly, and was not large before the beginning of the 
Civil War. 

3. Anti-Abolition Sentiment 

The slave holders were enraged by the activity of the 
Abolitionists, and were driven into defending slaverv on 



Slavery 231 

both moral and constitutional grounds. They insisted that 
the Abolitionists encouraged slave insurrection, and that 
they should be suppressed by force. In the North also the 
feeling ag-ainst the Abolitionists was strong. Their meet- 
ings were broken up by mobs ; their printing presses were 
destroyed ; their leaders were threatened with death, this 
being actually inflicted in one case. As the Abolitionists 
did not cease their work, but continued even more actively, 
much of their anti-slavery literature was taken from the 
mail by mobs, and burned. A bill was even introduced 
into Congress, with the full approval of President Jack- 
son, to prohibit the sending of such "incendiary publica- 
tions" through the mail. Though this bill failed of passage 
after warm debate, it showed the strength of the feeling 
that prompted it. 

4. TJic Gag Resolutions 

Anti-slavery agitators sent in large numbers of petitions 
to Congress concerning slavery. At first these petitions 
were received but not granted. In 1836, however, the 
southerners secured in the House of Representatives the 
passage of a resolution that all petitions relating in any 
way to slavery should not be received. This was fittingly 
called the "Gag Resolution." John Quincy Adams, then 
an old man, and a member of the House of Representatives, 
labored faithfully against this violation of the right of pe- 
tition, but the resolution passed after long and angrv de- 
bates, and remained in force about eight years. This 
refusal on the part of the House of Representatives to 
receive petitions from the people was a violation of the 
Constitution of the United States. It was the violation of 
a right held especially dear by English-speaking people, 
because it was one of those rights which had cost them 
centuries of bloodshed and struggle to secure. The great 
mass of the northern people had little use for the Aboli- 
tionists, but they denounced severely the attempt to inter- 



232 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

fere with the right of petition. This action therefore tended 
to create a strong feehng in the North against the attitude 
of the South on the slavery question, and the action of the 
few AboHtionists united the South in strong opposition 
to the North. 

II Expansion of Slave Territory: The Compromise of 
1850 

The addition of the vast territory secured from ^lexico 
to the United States opened up a great area for the expansion 
of slavery, and the rapid settling of this newly acquired terri- 
tory brought the whole question of slavery forcibly before the 
people. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 led to 
the rapid settlement of that territory and in 1849 the inhabi- 
tants of California formed a constitution and applied for ad- 
mission as a free state. During the discussion that followed, 
the feeling became so bitter in the North and in the South 
that threats of disunion were openly made in both sections. 
Demands were made by both the North and the South. The 
South demanded the right to take slavery into any territory 
of the United States and the passage of a strict fugitive slave 
law. The free states demanded that slavery should not be 
allowed to go into any new states, or territories, and that it 
should be abolished in the District of Columbia. The two 
sections were also diametrically opposed on the question of 
the admission of California as a free state. Webster and 
Clay, alarmed as to the outcome, introduced and urged com- 
promise measures. These measures are known as the Com- 
promise of 1850, and the essential points were: 

(i) California was to be admitted as a free state, while 
Utah and New Mexico were to be organized as territories 
without any provision as to slavery. This practically nulli- 
fied the Missouri Compromise, for while that measure was 
passed to settle the slavery question in the Louisiana terri- 
tory, it was but natural that the parallel of 36° 30' should be 



Slavery 233 

considered as extending with the acquisition of new territory, 
as the boundary Hue between free and slave territory. 

(2) The slave trade was to be prohibited in the District 
of Columbia. 

(3 A strict fugitive slave law should be passed by 
Congress. After violent discussion this compromise was ad- 
opted. While, as in the case of the Missouri Compromise, 
many thought that the slavery question was now settled, the 
Compromise of 1850 was but a temporary measure, and 
secured merely a short lull in the slavery agitation. 

III The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854 

The Fugitive Slave Law, which was part of the Compro- 
mise of 1850, was energetically made use of by the slave 
owners of the South, and this served to create a more intense 
feeling against slavery in the North. "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 
though an unjust representation of the slavery system, was a 
powerful instrument in intensifying this feeling. Under 
these conditions the Democrats elected Pierce to the Presi- 
dency, and secured control of both Houses of Congress. The 
leaders of both parties were anxious to let the slavery ques- 
tion rest, but Senator Douglas introduced a bill, known as 
the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which provided for the organiza- 
tion of Kansas and Nebraska into territories, and which 
expressly stated that the question of slavery should be left 
to the people of these territories. As Kansas and Nebraska 
were both entirely north of 36° 30', this was a violation of the 
Missouri Compromise, and the bill was strongly opposed on 
that account by the Free-soilers. The bill as finally passed, 
however, provided expressly for the repeal of the Missouri 
Compromise and thus re-opened the slavery question in all 
this western territory. 

IV Struggle for Kansas, 1854-1861 

As soon as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill was passed, a long, 
severe struggle for Kansas began. Since this territory would 



234 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

be free or slave as the settlers should decide, both the North 
and the South hurried in settlers in order to secure a ma- 
jority of voters. In addition to the actual settlers a large 
number of men came into Kansas from Missouri temporarily 
for the specific purpose of carrying the election for slavery 
by force and fraud. By illegal methods they succeeded in 
electing a wholly pro-slavery legislature. As the free-state 
settlers had not been allowed to vote, they formed a govern- 
ment of their own and asked for admission to the Union. 
The struggle which followed was a bloody one and lasted 
until 1861, when it was settled by the admission of Kansas 
to the Union as a free state. 

V The Dred Scott Decision, 1857 

Dred Scott was a slave taken by his master from Missouri 
into the free state of Illinois, and then into territory, which 
by the Missouri Compromise was to be forever free. On his 
return to Missouri he sued for his freedom on the ground 
that slavery could not exist on free soil, and therefore his 
residence in the free North had made him free. The Su- 
preme Court of the United States held that a slave was not 
a citizen, but property, and therefore had no rights in the 
courts. This meant that neither the Congress of the United 
States nor the legislature of a state or territory could inter- 
fere with slavery. It meant that slavery could exist in all the 
northern states and in all the western territory. This de- 
cision still further embittered the North. 

VI Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858 

In 1858 Stephen A. Douglas, a leading Democrat, was a 
candidate for re-election to the United States Senate from 
the state of Illinois. Abraham Lincoln was the Republican 
candidate, and a series of debates between the two men was 
held in the various towns of Illinois during the campaign. 
In these debates the principles of "squatter sovereignity," 



Slavery 236 

the Dred Scott decision, and other phases of the expansion 
of slavery were ably discussed. While the Democratic candi- 
date won the election, the debates served to bring Lincoln 
into national prominence, and to put the issues on slavery for- 
cibly before the people. Some of the admissions forced from 
Douglas concerning the control of slavery by Congress, alien- 
ated the extreme Southern Democratic party in the following 
presidential election. 

VII Election of Lincoln, i860 

Lincoln's position on the slave question was made plain 
in the Lincoln-Douglas debates, in which he declared that 
he was emphatically opposed to the extension of slavery, and 
that the nation must in time become all slave or all free. The 
majority of the people in the North agreed with him. While 
the Republican party disclaimed any intention of interfer- 
ing with slavery in the states where it existed, the South rec- 
ognized that the election of Lincoln to the presidency meant 
that slavery would not be further extended, and therefore 
considered it necessary, in order to preserve the institution 
of slavery, to withdraw from the Union. This withdrawal 
marks the beginning of the Civil War. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Slavery) 

I 

Discuss the conditions which led to the gradual abolition of slavery 
in the North. Discuss the conditions which caused it to become still 
more firmly fastened on the South. How did the Missouri Compromise 
affect the question of slavery? 

Who were the abolitionists and what did they advocate? What can 
you say about their number? In what way did they advocate their ideas? 
How were they treated in the North? What did this treatment indicate? 
What was the attitude of the South toward the Abolitionists? What gen- 
eral result did the work of the Abolitionists have? Explain the Gag Reso- 
lutions and Adams's opposition to them. Why were these resolutions 
wrong and in substance a violation of the Constitution of the United States? 
What effect did they have on the North ? 



236 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

II 

Explain in full the attitude of the South regarding slavery in the ter- 
ritory secured from Mexico. Explain in full the attitude of the North 
toward slavery in this territory. Describe the feeling between the North 
and South over this question. Describe in full the Compromise of 1850 
which temporarily settled this question. How did this compromise tend to 
repeal the Missouri Compromise ? 

Ill 
How was the fugitive slave law, which was a part of the Compromise 
of 1850, received in the North? What efifect did the book called Uncle 
Tom's Cabin have on the slavery question? What conditions led to the 
passing of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill? Describe in full the provisions of 
this bill!" How was it received in the North? In what way did this bill 
re-open the slavery question? 

IV 

Give a full description of the struggle for Kansas between the slavery 
and anti-slavery interests. What effect did this struggle have on the 
feeling between the North and South over the slave question? 

V 
Explain the Dred Scott Decision. What would have been the effect 
of this decision on the extension of slavery had it been applied to the 
entire slavery question? What effect did it have on the North? 

VI 

Discuss the Lincoln-Douglas Debates. What effect did they have on 
the slavery question? In what way did they help to make Lincoln the 
president of the United States? 

VII 

Explain in full why the election of Lincoln caused the Southern States 
to secede from the Union. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the conditions which caused the ideas of the South and the 
North on the slavery question to drift further and further apart. Discuss 
the relations of the Abolitionists to the Gag Resolutions. 

Discuss the causes, provisions and results of the Compromise of 1850. 
Give a full discussion of the causes, provisions and results of the Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill. Explain the importance of the Dred Scott Decision. 
Discuss the effect of the Lincoln-Douglas Debates on the slavery question. 



Institutional Life 237 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

During the period from 1828 to i860 there was a marked de- 
velopment in the United States along institutional lines. This 
statement, however, applies more especially to the North and 
West, for in many ways institutional life in the South remained 
almost stationary. The growth and application of liberal demo- 
cratic ideas had an important effect on county, state and national 
government. There was great development in the North and 
West along industrial lines, and a marked growth in social, re- 
ligious and educational matters. The South did not have her 
share in this general advancement, for slavery caused her to re- 
main almost strictly agricultural, and thus her institutional life 
was becoming more and more unlike that of the rest of the nation. 
Events were soon to prove that these diverging lines of growth 
could not be brought together peaceably. 

I Industrial Conditions 

This period was one of wonderful industrial advance- 
ment for the nation as a whole. Foreign immigration, im- 
portant inventions, improvements in machinery of all kinds, 
and the marked improvement in transportation and communi- 
cation with the consequent opening up of the country, were 
all factors in this industrial advance, and resulted in the 
building up of great manufacturing and commercial inter- 
ests, the building of cities, and the development of new in- 
dustries. White labor was unable to compete with slave 
labor, consequently not only foreign immigrants passed by 
the slave holding states and went into the North and North- 
west, but a large number of the white laborers whose homes 
were in the South left their old homes and went North where 
free labor prevailed. Free labor is necessary for advancement 
along commercial and manufacturing lines, and hence the 
South was shut out from developing its immense natural 
resources along these lines and was kept at almost a stand- 



238 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

still industrially. The northern free states in i860 outnum- 
bered the southern slave holding states in white population 
by about 10,000,000, or more than two to one. Since agri- 
culture tends to scatter population, and manufacturing and 
commerce tend to centralize it, many cities sprang up in the 
North but very few in the South. 

1. Means of Transportation and Commnnication 

The first railroad was built in the first years of this 
period and by i860 there were about 30,000 miles of rail- 
ways in operation in the United States. This enormous 
growth had a most important effect on industrial condi- 
tions. It opened up large areas of new country to trade 
and greatly cheapened the cost of transportation, thus mak- 
ing many industrial changes. During this period street 
horse-cars were first put into use in the cities. In 1844 the 
first telegraph line in the world was constructed and by 
i860 telegraph lines were in operation throughout settled 
parts of the country. The telegraph and the steam rail- 
way have done more to do away with sectionalism than any 
other influence, for they have brought all parts of the 
country into close contact, and thus have made for the 
unity of the nation. 

2. Agriculture 

Agriculture continued to be the one great industry of the 
South. The great demand for cotton by the northern and 
the English manufacturers caused cotton to become the 
chief southern product. In the northern and northwest- 
ern states large amounts of food-stuffs, particularly wheat 
and corn were raised and great quantities were exported. 

3. Mamifactnres 

The manufacturing interests which had their rise in the 
preceding period increased wonderfully during this period. 



Institutional Life 239 

The many new inventions, including the reaper, the sewing 
machine, improvements in agricultural and household im- 
plements as well as in machinery for factories, and the 
extensive use of steam engines of various kinds were a part 
of, and were stimulating to, the great advance in manu- 
factures. By i860 the value of the manufacturing indus- 
tries had reached several thousand millions, and more than 
a million people were given employment in the factories. 

4. Comincrcc 

While an important commerce, both domestic and for- 
eign, had been built up in the preceding period, it was now 
greatly improved and extended. This was due largely to 
the improved methods of transportation together with 
the growth of manufactures. By the end of this period 
American domestic and foreign commerce combined had 
become greater than that of any other nation. 

5. Development of Mineral Resourees 

Great progress was made during this period in the de- 
velopment of the iron industry. This was due largely to 
the increased demand caused by the building of railroads, 
bridges, and machinery of all kinds. Pennsylvania was the 
center of the iron industry. Coal at this time first began to 
be used as a fuel in place of wood, and this caused the de- 
velopment of coal mines. The mining of gold and silver 
and other minerals began to be carried on in the western 
states during the latter part of this period. The real de- 
velopment of the mineral resources of the country, how- 
ever, took place in the period following the Civil War. 

II Social Conditions 

Socially, as well as industrially, the South was at a stand- 
still. Class distinctions remained about the same. The new 
democracy which was leveling all classes in the North and 



240 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

West exerted but little influerc :; here. Class privileges had 
largely disappeared in the northern and western sections 
of the country during the preceding period. It was at this 
time that great improvements in the conditions of the work- 
ing classes began to be made in the way of better modes of 
living, higher wages and shorter hours. 

III Government 

As has already been stated, the growth and application 
of liberal democratic ideas during this period, had a marked 
effect on government in the United States. This is indicated 
by the election of Jackson, and the origin of national nom- 
inating conventions. Especially was this shown in the many 
new constitutions formed by new and old states during this 
time, in which the powers of the governors and legislatures 
were in many cases limited. The judicial department was 
also brought more under popular control by changes in the 
method of selecting judges. In many cases where the judi- 
cial officers had been appointed for terms lasting during good 
behavior, they were now elected by the people for compara- 
tively short terms. The town and county governments were 
made more democratic, particularly in the new western 
states, by the enlarging of the number of officers elected 
directly by the people. Municipal government now first be- 
came important, for before this time both the number and 
size of the cities were small. As in the case of the state and 
county governments, the government of the cities was very 
democratic. 

IV Religion 

About 1830 a great wave of religious enthusiasm together 
with a general reforming spirit swept over the whole nation, 
and resulted in the rapid growth of church organizations, 
especially of the Evangelical -ocls. In the latter part of this 
period, slavery caused a division in many of these churches 
and different branches were formed, such as North and South 



Institutional Life 241 

Methodists. The Mormon church had its rise at this time, 
and the persecution of its members on account of their doc- 
trines led to its migration into the West where it formed a 
sort of state of its own. 

V Education 

This was a period of mental awakening and intellectual 
advance in many directions. The public school system con- 
tinued to grow with the country. High schools, academies, 
and colleges made a distinct advance in all parts of the Union. 
Thousands of newspapers and magazines were published, 
and some of our best American authors, including Long- 
fellow, Whittier, Holmes, Bryant and Lowell among the 
poets, and Bancroft, Parkman. Motley and Prescott among 
the historians, wrote at this time. Henry Ward Beecher, 
Hawthorne and Wendell Phillips also belonged to this period. 
It is noticeable that most of this advance along educational 
lines took place in the non-slave holding states. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Institutional Life) 

I 

Why did institutional life in the South develop more slowly in many 
ways during this period than it did in the North and West? How did 
foreign immigration aid in the development of industrial conditions? 
What part of the nation did this affect? Why? Why did large cities grow 
up in the North much more rapidly than in the South? Explain why the 
South developed very little industrially. Discuss the beginning and the 
growth of railroads during this period. How did they affect industrial 
conditions? Describe other improvements in transportations, especially 
in cities. Describe the origin and development of telegraph lines. How 
did the telegraph affect industrial conditions? Discuss the agricultural 
conditions in the South. Describe the agricultural development of the 
West. 

What new inventions aided in the growth of manufactures? Describe 
the effect of each upon industrial conditions. How did the use of steam 



242 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

engines afifect the growth of manufactures? Compare the amount and 
value of the manufactures of the United States during this period with 
those of the preceding period. 

What were the chief factors in the growth of commerce during this 
period? Explain the efifect of each. 

Describe the development of the iron industry. What was the effect 
of the use of coal as fuel on industrial conditions? What other mineral 
resources were opened up during this period? Describe the discovery of 
gold in California and the rush of settlers to that territory. 

II 
Why were class distinctions dying out in the North and West while 
they remained much the same in the South? Why had class distinctions 
never been very strong in the West? How did the industrial advance aid 
the improvement in social conditions? 

Ill 

During this period, how was the growth of democratic ideas shown 
in the organization of state governments ? How did the growth of democ- 
racy affect the judicial department of government? How were town and 
county governments affected? Why did municipal government now first 
become important? 

IV 

Describe the reform movement which swept over the country about 
1830. How did slavery affect religious conditions? Discuss the rise of the 
Mormon Church. 

V 

What important part of our present public school system was being 
slowly established during this period? Describe the improvement in the 
condition of the common schools. Describe the growth of academies and 
colleges. What can you say of the growth of newspapers and magazines 
in number and quality? How did they affect the general education of the 
people? Name some of the noted writers and speakers of this period and 
tell something of the work of each. How did the improvement in means 
of transportation and communication aid the growth of general education? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the great industrial development of the North and West. Dis- 
cuss the industrial conditions of the South. Discuss the effect of improved 
means of transportation and communication on the industrial and social 
life of the nation and on the growth of national unity. Discuss social 
conditions and show how the growth of liberal democratic ideas affected 
these conditions. Discuss the effect of these democratic ideas on govern- 
ment. Discuss the growth of schools and the great advance along other 
educational lines. 



THE CIVIL WAR 

(Each pupil should read carefully all of Hart's Source Reader, 

No. 4) 

Mc. 382-424; H. IV, 75-418; T. 33(^388; M. 293-334 

I Causes 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 

II Comparative Resources of the North and South 

Mc. 383 ; T. 332-336 

1. Available Soldiers and Commanders 

Mc. 422-424; T. 333-335; M. 299 

2. Military Supplies 

Mc. 423; T. 332-333, 341; M. 298 

3. Financial Resources 

Mc. 423; T. 360-364; M. 333 

4. Facilities for Transportation 

III Campaigns 

1. Operations of the Army of the Potomac, dozi'ii to the 

Time zn'hen Grant zvas Placed in Command of 
all the Armies of the United States 
Mc. 388, 392, 402; T. 337^33^, 34^348, 354- 
356; M. 30(^302, 310-313, 315—317 

2. The Work of Grant 

Mc. 388-392, 397-399, 402-406; T. 341-343. 
353, 367-371, 382; M. 306-307, 322-325, 331- 
332 



244 THE CIVIL WAR 

IV The Work of the Navy 

1. Blockade of the Southern Ports 

Mc. 41(^412; T. 332-333, 358, 375; M. 302, 303 

2. Commerce Destroyers 

Mc. 412-414; T. 358-359. 375; M. 303-304 

3. The Revolution in Naval Warfare 

Mc. 414-417; T. 343-346; ^I. 304-305 

V Results 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 
T. 386-388 ;M. 315, 337 



THE CIVIL WAR 

I Causes 

The real causes of the Civil War were much deeper than the 
political events which led up to it. As has already been 
stated, the fundamental causes of this war are to be found 
in the difference in the topography, climate and soil of the 
North and South, and in the introduction of slavery into the 
English colonies. The effect of these conditions in develop- 
ing two civilizations in the two sections of the country differ- 
ing in almost every way, and the consequent growth of an- 
tagonism between the North and the South, have been rather 
fully treated in preceding topics. To sum up the conditions 
leading inevitably to war : The topography, climate and soil 
of the United States made slavery profitable in the South and 
unprofitable in the North. This led to the gradual abolition 
of slavery in the North and to the gradual growth there of 
of a sentiment against it. In the South, on the other hand, 
industrial conditions tended to establish slavery permanently, 
and the whole social and industrial life of the South became 
firmly moulded around the institution of slavery. The North, 
resting upon a foundation of free labor, developed its resour- 
ces and outgrew the South rapidly in population and wealth. 
The South, because of the nature and effect of slave labor, 
was falling behind the North in nearly all respects. It had 
come to regard negro slavery as morally right and something 
to be protected and encouraged. Long before the outbreak 
of the Civil War, southern society rested so firmly on slavery 
that to destroy it meant, in a certain sense, the destruction of 
southern institutions. It is no wonder, therefore, that the 
statesmen and slave owners of the South would not for a 
moment consider the abolition of the slavery system. 

By i860 the North and the South had become two peoples, 
socially and industrially. The statesmen of the South fore- 
saw that it was only a question of time when the slave states 



246 THE CIVIL WAR 

must leave the Union, or give up slavery, and thus wreck 
the foundations of southern society. They chose to fight 
rather than do this. The people of the North, under the 
same circumstances, would probably have followed a similar 
course. In other words, there were conditions which made 
the Civil War inevitable. It was caused by forces beyond 
the control of the people of either section. It dealt with one 
of those questions in advancing civilization that must usually 
be settled by the sword. 

II Comparative Resources of the North and South 

1. Available Soldiers and Commanders 

The total population of the United States in i860 was 
about 31,000,000. There were not more than 6,000,000 
white inhabitants in the states that seceded and not less than 
20,000,000 in those states that supported the national gov- 
ernment. There were many men of military training ia 
both the North and the South and a few of great military 
genius, but the ablest military leaders of the North did not 
secure command of the Federal army until several years 
after the war began, while the southern armies were com- 
manded by the ablest southern generals from the very first. 

2. Military Supplies 

In the beginning the South had the advantage in this 
direction on account of the military supplies which had 
been stored in southern arsenals before the outbreak of 
hostilities. But as the North tightened the blockade and 
prevented the bringing in of war material from England, 
the South, having no manufactures of her own, became 
severely handicapped because of the scarcity which pre- 
vailed. It was not until the outcome of the war had prac- 
tically been decided that the necessary factories were put 
into operation for supplying the needs of the southern 



Comparative Resources of the North and South 247 

armies. The North, being a manufacturing country, with 
factories ah^eady in operation, was able to provide itself 
with the necessary military supplies. 

3. Financial Resources 

When the blockade stopped the export of their cotton and 
tobacco, the southerners became reduced to dreadful 
straits for money. To meet this condition an immense 
amount of paper money was issued just as had been done 
by the Continental Congress during the Revolution, and, 
like the Continental Currency, this Confederate money 
soon depreciated in value until it became almost worth- 
less. In the North, on account of a much stronger credit, 
the government was able to sell immense quantities of 
bonds, and to issue paper money without its depreciation to 
any very great extent as compared with the currency of the 
Confederacy. On account of its industrial activity, the 
North was also able to raise large sums from taxation. 

4. Facilities for Transportation 

Before and during the war a vast network of railroads 
was being woven between the various northern states. 
When the crisis came, the North was able to transport 
soldiers and military supplies from one point to another 
with comparatively little delay. In the South, on the other 
hand, railroads were comparatively few and poorly equip- 
ped, nor had they the iron for replacing worn-out rails, 
nor the workmen to repair and keep the lines in working 
order. There was no lack of agricultural products, but 
much distress and even threatened starvation was caused 
both to the soldiers and the other inhabitants because of the 
poor means of distribution. 

Ill Campaigns 

At the beginning of the Civil War, the national govern- 
ment determined to enforce the laws of the United States in 



248 THE CIVIL WAR 

the South, and to prevent the seceding states from leaving 
the Union. In order to accompHsh these purposes, it was 
decided to blockade the South, capture Richmond, open up 
the Mississippi, and cut the Confederacy into two sections. 
In a short time three great armies were organized,-the Army 
of the Potomac, the Army of the Cumberland, and the Army 
of the Tennessee. The Army of the Potomac was to defend 
Washington and capture Richmond. The armies of the 
Cumberland and the Tennessee were to operate in the West 
and open up the Mississippi. 

I. Operations of the Army of the Potomac down to the 
Time zvhen Grant was Placed in Command of all the 
Armies of the United States. 

After the disastrous battle of Bull Run, the troops 
around Washington were placed vmder the command of 
McClellan, and called the Army of the Potomac. The 
proposed work of this army was to capture Richmond. 
Two plans were proposed for reaching Richmond. The 
authorities at Washington thought that the better way was 
for the army to proceed directly South. McClellan ob- 
jected to this, on account of the many rivers in the path, 
beside which strong fortifications had been erected by the 
Confederates. He advised that soldiers be landed from 
transports at Yorktown, Virginia, and from there pro- 
ceed against Richmond. McClellan's plan prevailed, and 
in the spring of 1862, with an army of 100,000 men, he 
was transferred to the vicinity of Yorktown. After several 
months of hard fighting the campaign ended in failure. 

In August, 1862, McClellan was ordered back to defend 
Washington. A month later, the armies of Lee and Mc- 
Clellan met at Sharpsburg, or Antietam, in western Mary- 
land. Here a great battle was fought, with the result that 
Lee was compelled to retreat across the Potomac and for 
the time abandoned his idea of invading the North. As 
McClellan did not follow Lee with sufficient energy to meet 



Campaigns 249 

the approval of the authorities at Washington, he was re- 
moved and Burnside was placed in command. In Decem- 
ber, 1862, Burnside was defeated at Fredericksburg, and 
his command was given to General Hooker. In the spring 
of 1863, Hooker crossed the Rapidan, only to meet with 
a terrible defeat at the hands of Lee's army. In this battle 
Stonewall Jackson, one of Lee's ablest generals, was ac- 
cidentally killed by his own men. Encouraged by his vic- 
tory over Hooker, Lee again attempted to invade the North. 
Amid great excitement throughout the North, Hooker 
was removed, and General George A. Meade given com- 
mand of the Army of the Potomac. The two armies met 
at Gettysburg, a village in southeastern Pennsylvania. 
Here, on the first, second, and third days of July, 1863, 
was fought one of the greatest battles in the history of the 
world. Lee's army was defeated, and he never again at- 
tempted to carry the war into the enemy's country. Meade 
did not pursue Lee's shattered forces. The Army of the 
Potomac fought no other great battles until after Grant 
assumed command of all the armies of the United States, 
in March, 1864. 

TJie Work of Grant in the Ciinl War 

In the early part of 1862, Grant was placed in command 
of the Union forces at Cairo, Illinois. His first important 
work was the capture of Fort Donaldson, on the Cumber- 
land River. After three days of fighting, Buckner, as 
commander of the Confederate forces, asked Grant what 
terms would be granted him if he should surrender the 
fort, together with his force of fifteen thousand men. 
Grant replied, "No terms, except unconditional and imme- 
diate surrender, can be accepted." Buckner surrendered 
under the terms mentioned, and thus Grant won the first 
great Union victory. 

Grant now moved up the Tennessee and fought the bat- 
tle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing. Albert Sidney John- 
ston, in command of the Confederate army, was killed and 



250 THE CIVIL WAR 

his army forced to retreat. Grant's next important work 
was the siege and capture of Vicksburg. Vicksbnrg was 
a well fortified city on the Mississippi, defended bv thirty- 
seven thousand soldiers under the command of Pemberton. 
After a siege of seven weeks, the city was compelled to sur- 
render on the fourth day of July, 1863, just one day after 
the defeat of Lee at Gettysburg. Port Hudson surrendered 
five days later, and the Federal government had secured 
control of the Mississippi from Minnesota to the Gulf. 
These events were the beginning of the end, and the cause 
of the South from this time onward steadily declined. 

Grant next turned his attention to Chattanooga, at which 
place Bragg had defeated Rosecrans and laid siege to the 
Union army. Under the direction of Grant, the two bril- 
liant battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge 
were fought. The Confederates under Bragg were driven 
southward toward Atlanta. 

In March, 1864, Grant was made Commander-in-Chief 
of all the Union forces. He gave his personal attention to 
the Army of the Potomac, but directed the movements of 
all the Federal troops. Sherman was placed in command 
at Chattanooga. He moved South, captured Atlanta, and 
then made his famous march to the sea. Early in the 
spring of 1864, Grant took command of the Army of the 
Potomac, consisting of about one hundred twenty thousand 
men. He moved his army southward, crossed the Rap- 
pahannock and entered the Wilderness. Here he met Lee's 
army of sixty thousand men, and a terrible struggle en- 
sued. In one month Grant lost sixty-four thousand sol- 
diers, but he forced Lee to retreat and take up his position 
within the fortifications of Richmond. Grant laid siege to 
the city. Sherman's march through the South and Sheri- 
dan's raids with his cavalry had cut ofif a large part of 
Lee's provisions. Lee evacuated Richmond and attempted 
to escape, but Grant surrounded his army and forced a sur- 



Campaigns 251 

render at Appomattox Court House, a little place about 
seventy-five miles west of Richmond, April 9, 1865. The 
surrender of Lee marked the end of the Civil War, al- 
though some of the other Southern armies did not sur- 
render until a little later. 

IV The Work of the N.wy in the Ci\ il War 
I. Blockade of the South cm Ports 

At the beginning- of the war the national government, in 
order to cripple the Confederacy as much as possible, de- 
cided upon a complete blockade of the southern ports. 
Until this blockade was efifected, the South could export 
cotton, sugar, and tobacco, and import arms and other mili- 
tary supplies. To accomplish this blockade, the national 
government had at first about twenty-four vessels, but it 
built and equipped a navy with marvelous rapidity, and 
by the close of the year 1861, had the blockade fairly 
effective. There were more than three thousand miles of 
coast for the Union vessels to watch, however, and many 
vessels, known as blockade-runners, would slip past the 
Union vessels in the night and succeed in bringing supplies 
to the Confederates. During the war, more than fifteen 
hundred of these blockade-runners were taken or destroyed 
by the Union fleet. 

2. Couuiierce Destro\ers 

While the North was busy in perfecting a blockade of 
the southern coast, the Confederates were fitting out ves- 
sels called Commerce-Destroyers. It was the business of 
these vessels to watch the great high-ways of commerce and 
to destroy as many Union merchant ships as possible. The 
most famous vessels of this kind were the Florida, the 
Alabama, and the Shenandoah, all of which were fitted out 
in England. They did an immense amount of damage to 
the Commerce of the North during the war. In 1872, a 



252 THE CIVIL WAR 

board of arbitration, to which the case had been submitted, 
decided that England should pay the United States the 
sum of fifteen million dollars on account of the injury done 
to American commerce during the war by the Confederate 
Commerce-Destroyers which had been fitted out in English 
ports. This settlement is known as the Geneva Award. 

3. The Revohition in Nai'al JVarfare 

In the early part of 1862 the Confederates raised a vessel 
which had been sunk in the navy yard at Norfolk, Virginia. 
They covered it with a double plating of iron, and chris- 
tened it the Virginia. This was the first ironclad warship 
ever constructed. With this vessel the Confederates de- 
stroyed several of the larger Union war vessels at that time 
lying in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Before it had com- 
pleted the work of destruction at that port, the Monitor, 
an ironclad vessel built in New York by John Ericsson, 
arrived on the scene. A battle took place between the two 
vessels which was to be the most important single event 
of the war, proving as it did that a few ironclad vessels 
could destroy the largest wooden navy afloat. A complete 
revolution in naval construction now took place, and the 
great wooden war-vessels of the world were rapidlv sup- 
planted by iron-protected fighting-machines. 

'V Results 

The main results of the Civil War were the destruction of 
slavery, the great industrial development of the South, which 
the destruction of slavery made possible, the enfranchise- 
ment of the negro, and the race problem which this enfran- 
chisement created and which has not yet been settled. Since 
the war the industrial development of the South has been ex- 
tremely rapid. Iron and coal fields second to none in the 
world have been discovered. The production of cotton has 
vastly increased. Manufacturing establishments of every 



Results 253 

kind have been springing into existence. Many large manu- 
facturing establishments are moving their machinery from 
New England into the South. 

Another important result of the war has been the unifica- 
tion of the nation. Sectional feeling has almost vanished 
because slavery, its cause, has been removed. During the 
Spanish-American war, ex-Confederate soldiers fought side 
by side with Federal soldiers who had been their old oppo- 
nents in the Civil War. Other results of the war were the 
destruction of more than six billion dollars' worth of property 
and the loss of about seven hundred thousand of the best 
men of the nation, the South losing almost as man^• of these 
as the North. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(The Civil War) 

(In connection with the study of the Civil War the pupil should read 
carefully Hart's Source Reader, No. 4. It is very interesting, and no 
other book will give the pupil such a clear knowledge of army life and 
actual warfare.) 

I 

Beginning with the difference between the North and the South in 
topography, climate and soil, review carefully the industrial or funda- 
mental causes of the Civil War. Beginning with the Missouri Compromise 
review carefully the political events which were the results of these 
fundamental causes and which were themselves the causes that led directly 
to this war. 

II 
Compare the North and the South as regards available soldiers and 
commanders. Compare them as regards military supplies. Compare them 
as regards financial resources. Compare them as regards facilities for 
transportation. 

Ill 

Discuss briefly the secession of the southern states and the organ- 
ization of the government of the Confederacy. Describe the bombardment 
of Fort Sumpter and its effect on the North and the South. Describe the 
first battle of Bull Run and its effect on the North and the South. What 



254 THE CIVIL WAR 

three great Union armies were organized and what work was each to 
accompHsh? 

(No attempt should be made to study in detail the numerous battles 
of the Civil War. One or two of the questions given below should be given 
to the pupils of the class and they should then have time to prepare for a 
recitation on the same. It might be well to make an intensive study of one 
or two of the more important battles.) 

Describe the operations of the Army of the Potomac to the time when 
Grant became commander-in-chief of all the armies of the United States. 
Describe the work of Grant to the time he became Commander-in-Chief. 
Describe Sherman's march to the sea. Describe the operations of the Army 
of the Potomac from the time Grant took direct command of it until the 
surrender of Lee and the end of the war. 

IV 

Describe the organization of the Union navy during the war. Describe 
the blockade of the southern ports and explain its importance. Describe 
the work of the southern commerce-destroyers. Explain how the Civil War 
caused a revolution in naval warfare. 

V 

What was the cost of the Civil War in life and property? What effect 
did it have on slavery? What is meant by the race problem? Explain 
how it was created by the Civil War. Indicate briefly the wonderful indus- 
trial growth of the South since the war, and show how this growth is 
related to the destruction of slavery. Explain how the Civil War has 
brought about the unification of the nation — has caused a growth of 
Union and real friendship between the North and the South. 

(The questions given above will serve for compositions and examin- 
ations.) 



RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND 
EXPANSION 

A RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SECEDED STATES 

I Relation of the Seceded States to the National 

Government 
]\rc. 427 

II Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson 

Mc. 427-430; T. 390-393; M. 338 

III Reconstruction Policy of Congress 

1. Freedmcn's Bureau 

Mc. 429-430; T. 392; M. 338 

2. The Reconstruction Acts 

Mc. 430-431- 439; T. 393-395; ^i- 339-340 

3. Aniendments to the Constitution 

(a) Thirteenth Amendment 

Mc. 429 ; T. 392 

(b) Fourteenth Amendment 

Mc. 430; T. 393; M. 339 

(c) Fifteenth Amendment 

Mc. 440-442; T. 402; M. 341 



B FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION 
I Financial Legislation 

1. Paper Money 

.Mc. 420; T. 361-362; M. 355 

2. National Banking System 

Mc. 421 ; T. 364 



256 RECONSTRUCriON, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

3. Resumption of Specie Payment 

Mc. 437-438, 445-446 ; T. 362, 414, 425 ; M. 356 

4. Gold and Silver Standards 

Mc. /I48-449. 467, 471-472, 485 ; T. 422- 23, 448, 
456, 475, 500 ; M. 349-350, 374, 378, 403 

II Tariff Legislation 

:\Ic. 419-420, 466, 473, 476; T. 429, 441-442, 446- 

447, 472 

III Industrial Legislation 

1. Corporations and Trusts 

Mc. 459-460, 464; M. 366-368 

2. Labor Unions 

Mc. 460-461 ; T. 438-439, 473 ; ^I- 363-365 

3. Lazvs Relating to Corporations, Trusts and Lab 

Unions 

Mc. 443-444, 465; T. 437-438; M. 359, 365, 370 

C FOREIGN RELATIONS 

I Purchase of Alaska, 1867 

Mc. 45^451; T. 397; M. 342 

II Tre.\ty of Washington, 1871 

Mc. 450; T. 405-407; M. 352 

III Application of the Monroe Doctrine 

1. The Frencli in Mexico, i86i-i86j 

Mc. 449-450 ; T. 398-399 

2. The Venezuela Boundary, i8py 

Mc. 474; T. 477-478; M. 381-382 

IV Growth of Arbitration 

I. Application of the Principles of Arbitration 
T. 445, 455, 473 ; M. 379 



Rccoiistniclioii of Seceded States 257 

2. The Hague Tribunal, iSpp 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 
M. 403 

V- The Spanish- American War, 1898 

1 . Catises 

Mc. 476-477 ; T. 479-485 ; ^i- 388-390 

2. Campaigns 

(a) Naval Warfare 

Mc. 477-480; T. 48^489; Ar. 391-393 

(b) The War on Land 

IMc. 479-480; T. 489-492: M. 393-395 

3. Results 

(a) Territorial 

Mc. 48(^483; T. 494-495.. 497-5oo; M. 
395-398 

(b) Political 

Mc. 483; T. 495-496: M. 396-398 

VI The Isthmian Canal 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 
M. 404 

D POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Political Methods 

T. 417, 427-428, 451 ; M. 357, 363, Z7^Z77' 381 

II Political Parties 

Mc. 439, 442-448, 462-470, 475-476, 484-486; T. 
395-396, 408-409, 413, 416-419. 434-436, 447. 452- 
455, 416, 475-477- 501-502 

E INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 
I Industrial Conditions 

I. The Development of the New West 

Mc. 433-436, 455-458; T. 415, 444, 461-462; M. 
345-347, 381 



258 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

2. Tlie Nczv South 

Mc. 454 ; T. 432-434, 465 ; M. 360-362 

3. Means of Transportation and Communication 

Mc. 434-435, 45^; T. 396-397, 399-40i, 410, 414, 
464; M. 341-342, 344-346 

4. Manufactures 

Mc. 454, 459; T. 415, 464; M. 351, 375 

5. Agriculture 

Mc. 457; M. 347,373, 400 

6. Commerce 

T. 464, 500; M. 383-384, 405 

7. Foreign Immigration 

T. 460-461 

II Social Conditions 

Mc. 460 ; T. 439-440, 461 

III Education 

T. 466-471 ; M. 402 

1. Tlie Public Elementary School System 

2. The Public High School System 

3. Universities and Colleges 

4. Special Schools 



RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND 
EXPANSION 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SECEDED STATES 

I Relation of the Seceded States to the National Gov- 

ernment 

When the Civil War closed, the governments of the Confed- 
eracy and of the states forming the Confederacy were com- 
pletely broken up, and the nation was confronted with the 
serious problem of restoring the South to its proper political 
■ and constitutional relations to the national government. In 
order to restore these states to their proper places it was 
necessary first to determine into just what relation to the 
national government they had been placed by secession. 
Some, among whom were Lincoln and Johnson, held that 
states could not secede and therefore the southern states 
had never left the Union ; that the attempted secession had 
merely had the effect of destroying the constitutional privil- 
eges of those taking part ; that these privileges might be 
restored through the pardoning power of the President ; 
that as soon as state governments were re-established these 
states could resume their former places in the Federal gov- 
ernment. Others maintained that secession had reduced the 
southern states to the condition of territories, and that Con- 
gress could manage these territories just as it pleased. The 
view which prevailed ultimately was a medium one, — that the 
southern states had not lost their statehood, but that they 
had lost their constitutional rights as states, and that Congress 
had the power to restore these rights at its discretion. 

II Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson 

Lincoln, acting on his theory regarding the political rela- 
tion of the seceded states to the national government, issued 
a proclamation in December, 1863, in which, with some 



260 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOP.MENT AND EXPANSION 

exceptions, he promised to pardon all those in rebellion who 
would lay down their arms and take an oath to support the 
Constitution and all laws or proclamations concerning the 
emancipation of slaves. He also promised that a new state 
government might be organized in a seceded state as soon as 
the number of persons taking the oath in that state was one 
tenth as large as the number that had voted in i860, and 
that such state would then be given full recognition by the 
national government. Four states reorganized upon this 
basis. After Lincoln's death the same policy was pursued 
by Johnson in reconstructing the remaining seceded states, 
but his work was not allowed to stand by Congress which 
was determined to have a voice in the reconstruction. 

Ill Reconstruction Policy of Congress 

1. Freedmen's Bureau 

In order to protect and aid the ex-slaves. Congress, early 
in 1865, passed a measure which provided for the establish- 
ment of what was called the Freedmen's Bureau. The 
severe labor or vagrancy laws passed in many of the south- 
ern states in 1865 and 1866, led Congress to continue this 
bureau to 1870, and to enlarge its duties and powers for the 
aid and protection of the freedmen. 

2. The Reconstruction Acts 

The refusal of the southern states to ratify the Four- 
teenth Amendment giving the negro the rights of citizen- 
ship led to the passage by Congress of a series of acts 
limiting the President's power and placing severe restric- 
tions on the southern states. The Reconstruction Act 
itself provided for the division of the southern states into 
military districts each under the command of an army 
officer. This act made it necessary for the seceded states 
to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution 
before being re-admitted to the Union, the Thirteenth 



Reconstruction of Seceded States 261 

Amendment having already been made a part of the Con- 
stitution. It also fixed such conditions upon the suffrage 
in these states that the voting lay almost altogether in the 
hands of former slaves and immigrants from the North — 
" carpet baggers " as they were called — who flocked into 
the South after the war to profit by conditions there. By 
thus shutting out the southerners from voting, Congress 
secured in six of the states the formation of conventions 
that would ratify the proposed amendment. 

3. Amendments to the Constitution 

(a) The Thirteenth Amendmicnt 

The Emancipation Proclamation had freed the slaves 
only in the seceding states. In order to abolish slavery 
throughout the Union the Thirteenth Amendment was 
proposed by Congress in January, 1865, and was ratified 
by the necessary number of states during the year and 
proclaimed in force in December. 

(b) The Fourteenth Amendment 

The radical Republicans had gradually gained control 
of Congress by 1866, and they were strongly opposed to 
Johnson's lenient reconstruction policy. Congress pro- 
posed the Fourteenth Amendment, which made the negro 
a citizen. The southern states refused to ratify this 
amendment. Congress then passed a Reconstruction Act 
which required the seceded states to ratify this amend- 
ment before they might send Senators and representatives 
to Congress. This completely overthrew the reconstruc- 
tion work done by Johnson. Six of the seceded states 
soon complied with this reconstructive act. The rati- 
fication of the fourteenth amendment by these six states 
completed the number necessary to make it a part of the 
constitution. In July, 1868, it was declared to be in full 
force and effect. 



262 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

(c) The Fifteenth Amendment 

In February, 1869, Congress proposed the Fifteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution. This gave the negro the 
right to vote. Those states which had refused to ratifv 
the Fourteenth .Vmendment were now obHged to ratifv 
both the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments before 
they could re-enter the Union. Having been ratified bv 
a sufficient number of states the Fifteenth Amendment 
went into effect in March, 1870. With its ratification 
by the last of the seceding states in 1871, the political 
reconstruction of the South came to an end. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Reconstruction of the Seceded States) 

I 

What was the condition of government in the seceded states at the 
close of the Civil War? Explain the two different views which were held 
as to the relation of these states to the national government? What is 
meant by reconstruction? 

II 

Describe Lincoln and Johnson's policy of reconstruction. Describe 
the policy of Congress. To what extent did Johnson carry out his policy? 
What was the attitude of Congress toward his policy? What policy finally 
prevailed — the policy of Johnson or the policy of Congress ? 

Ill 

Describe the conditions which led to the estabHshment of the Freed- 
men's Bureau. Describe the nature and work of this bureau. What was 
the Tenure of Office Act? Why was it passed? Explain in full the im- 
peachment of President Johnson. 

Describe the Reconstruction Act and its effect on the South. De- 
scribe the nature of the Thirteenth Amendment. In what way is it related 
to the Emancipation Proclamation? Describe the Fourteenth Amendment. 
Why did Congress propose this Amendment? How were the seceded states 
forced to ratify it? Describe the Fifteenth Amendment. Why was it pro- 
posed by Congress? How was it received in the South? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 
Discuss the relation of the seceded states to the National Govern- 
ment at the end of the Civil War. Discuss the reconstruction policy of 
Lincoln and Johnson. Discuss fully the reconstruction policy of Congress 
and how it was carried out. Discuss the effect of the reconstruction policy 
of Congress on the people of the South. 



Financial and Industrial Legislation 263 

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION 

I Financial Legislation 

1. Paper Money 

The finances of the national government were in a bad 
state at the beginning of the Civil War, the treasury being 
entirely empty. Consequently the government was forced 
to begin borrowing money soon after the war began. The 
supply of gold was soon exhausted and Congress was 
forced to issue paper money. About $500,000,000 of this 
paper money was issued during the war, and it was made 
a legal currency for all kinds of business, although no one 
could require the government to exchange gold or silver 
for it. Besides this paper money, the government issued 
bonds to the value of more than $1,000,000,000. 

2. National Bank System 

During the Civil War the National bank system of the 
United States was established. This system is entirely 
different from the United States Bank destroyed by Jack- 
son. It was established for the purpose of creating a 
market for the sale of United States bonds, in order that 
money might be secured to carry on the war. The law 
which established this system provides that not less than 
five persons, with a combined capital of not less than 
$100,000 may establish a national bank. They must invest 
a sum amounting to at least one third of their capital in 
United States bonds, and the government will then give 
them bank notes, not exceeding in value ninety per cent 
of the par value of these bonds. A tax levied by Congress 
on the notes of state banks caused most of them to become 
national banks, and thus the national government was able 
to sell large quantities of its bonds. The national banking 
system is now an important feature of the financial system 
of the United States. 



264 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

3. Resumption of Specie Payment 

During the Civil War gold and silver largely disappeared 
from circulation, and paper money was in use throughout 
the country. In order to bring the finances of the country 
back to a gold and silver basis, Congress passed a law in 
1864, which provided that the Treasury Department should 
pay out gold and silver in return for paper money, all 
the paper money thus secured to be destroyed. Within four 
years the amount of paper money in circulation was reduced 
from nearly $500,000,000 to $356,000,000. The destruction 
of so much paper currency caused a scarcity of money, 
and in response to the demand of the people, specie pay- 
ment was discontinued in 1868. In 1879 it was resumed 
and the finances of the country have ever since been on a 
hard money basis. 

4. Gold and Silver Standards 

Standard money is money that must be accepted in pay- 
ment for all debts, and the material out of which this money 
is made must be coined by the United States mints practi- 
cally free of charge for any one who takes the material 
to the mint and complies with the regulations. Until 1873 
both gold and silver were standard moneys in the United 
States, — that is, any one possessing either gold or silver 
could have it coined into money. In 1873 the coinage of 
silver as a standard circulating medium was partially dis- 
continued, and in 1876 the coinage of silver as a standard 
money was abolished. In 1878 it was again made a stan- 
dard money, but the amount the government could coin 
during each year was limited. The law providing for this 
is called the Bland Silver Bill. In 1890 Congress passed 
what is known as the Sherman Act. This law directed 
the Secretary of the Treasury to buy about $15,000,000 
worth of silver each year. After 1891 it was provided 
that the silver bought need not be coined, but silver certif- 
icates for 4,500,000 ounces of silver must be issued each 



Financial and Industrial Legislation 265 

month and these redeemed in gold and silver. In order 
to protect the gold reserve in the United States Treasury, 
the Sherman Act was repealed in Cleveland's second ad- 
ministration. In the spring of 1900 Congress passed a law 
which declared, in substance, that the gold standard would 
be maintained in the United States. 

II Tariff Legislation 

Tariff, as used in national legislation, is a tax levied on 
goods brought into the United States from another country. 
One of the main objects of a tariff is to obtain the money 
required for meeting the expenses of government and the 
payment of the national debt. Another object is to protect 
home industries. Many believe that tariff duties should be 
so levied as to protect the manufacturing and agricultural 
interests of the country. This means that all goods which can 
be produced in the United States should be required to pay 
an import duty so as to secure a better home market for 
home products and thus increase home production. On the 
other hand many believe that a protective tariff raises the 
price of goods and products and benefits only those who pro- 
duce the articles on which an import duty is levied. These 
people therefore believe that a tariff should be levied for the 
purpose of revenue only, and that tariff duties should be levied 
only on such articles as are used by the wealthier classes. The 
majority of the people of the United States, however, believe 
that, in addition to raising a revenue for the expenses of the 
government one of the main objects of tariff duties should be 
the protection of home industries. During the war high 
tariff rates were levied in order to raise money to meet the 
expenses of the war, and in order to protect the manufactur- 
ing interests which were being heavily taxed. Since the war 
the tariff has remained strongly protective in nature. The 
Wilson Bill, passed during Cleveland's second administration, 
modified the tariff in many respects, but it retained a large 
number of protective features. During McKinley's adminis- 



266 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

tration, a tariff with full protective features was restored, 
and is still in operation. The principle of a protective tariff 
is becoming more and more an accepted part of the economic 
policy of the United States. 

Ill Industrial Legislation 

1. Corporations and Trusts 

A corporation is an organization recognized by law, and 
empowered to transact a certain kind of business, as though 
it were one person. The wonderful industrial progress of 
the United States has made it possible for men to amass 
large fortunes. These fortunes, singly or in combinations, 
have been used for the purpose of building long railroad 
lines, developing large mining interests, and carrying on 
other great enterprises. They have often taken advantage 
of the great power which they possess in order to crush out 
smaller enterprises having less financial backing. A vast 
corporation often takes the place of many individual busi- 
ness concerns. For example, the Western Union Telegraph 
Company was organized in 1886 out of forty small tele- 
graph companies. Many lines of railroads have been com- 
bined into a few trunk lines. The Standard Oil Company 
has taken the place of any number of smaller oil companies. 
When great corporations were first organized they were 
brought into sharp competition with other corporations 
engaged in the same lines of business, and prices were 
kept at a low mark. The people received the benefit of 
this competition. The corporations soon learned that it was 
to their advantage to form combinations, thus avoiding 
competition with one another. Vast combines or trusts 
have now been formed in almost every line of business, 

2. Labor Unions 

In order to protect themselves against the combinations 
of capital referred to above, and to better their condition, 



Financial and Industrial Legislation 267 

many of the laboring people of the country have combined 
at different times and under various names. Most of 
these labor unions have united and formed state federations, 
and the state federations are represented in what is known 
as the American Federation of Labor, which exercises 
general control over nearly all the labor unions in the 
United States. By their combined efforts, the labor unions 
have shortened the hours of labor, raised wages and accom- 
plished many other things which, taken together with the 
natural advantages and great industrial development of the 
United States, have raised the condition of the American 
laborer above that of any other nation in the world. 

3. Laws Relating to Corporations, Trusts and Labor Unions 

The aggressive, and sometimes illegal methods of great 
corporations and trusts, and the recent unjust and un- 
American demands of some labor unions, constitute one of 
the greatest problems now before the American people for 
solution. Corporations and trusts and labor unions are no 
doubt beneficial and necessary to our industrial develop- 
ment, but it has become quite evident during the last few 
years that the great mass of the American people must see 
to it that they do not infringe upon, nor interfere with, 
the great principles of personal freedom and personal initia- 
tive in business and labor, which have made possible the 
great growth of the American nation. Already laws having 
this object in view have been passed by both the national 
and state legislatures. Among such laws is that known as 
the Interstate Commerce Act passed by Congress in 1887. 
This law provides for the supervision of railroads by a 
national commission whose duty it is to prevent unfair 
discrimination between shippers, and to prevent combina- 
tions formed for the purpose of destroying competition 
and raising prices. Among the laws passed with special 
reference to labor, are the Contract Labor Law, which pro- 
hibits any person in the United States from importing 



268 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND ENPANSION 

foreign laborers under contract, laws restricting Chinese 
immigration, and laws making eight hours a full day's 
labor in certain kinds of government employment. In 
1903 Congress created the new executive department of 
Commerce and Labor. Many states have passed laws 
regulating railway fares, and restricting the powers and 
defining the duties of corporations and trusts. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATION 
(Financial Legislation) 

I 

What was the condition of the finances of the National Government 
at the beginning of the Civil War? Why did the government find it nec- 
essary to issue paper money? What is a national bond? Why did the 
government issue bonds during the war? 

Describe the National Bank System. Why was it created? What 
action did Congress take against the state banks? 

What is specie payment? When the paper money was first issued, 
could it be exchanged for gold and silver money? What effect did this 
have on the use of gold and silver money in business affairs? Explain 
what is meant by the resumption of specie payment in 1864. What effect 
did this have on the amount of paper money in circulation? After 1864 
when and for what reason was specie payment discontinued and when was 
it resumed? 

Explain fully what is meant by standard money. Up to 1873 what was 
standard money in the United States? Explain carefully how silver since 
1873 has gradually lost its position as a full standard money. 

II 
Explain carefully the two main objects for which tariff duties are 
levied. Explain the two different views regarding the value of the pro- 
tective principle of the tariff. Beginning with the Civil War, trace and 
explain the tariff legislation of the Nation. 

Ill 

What is a corporation? What is a trust? Give examples of each. 
Explain how the wonderful industrial development of the United States 
since the Civil War has made possible the rapid growth of corporations and 
trusts. In what way are they of great value to the nation? In what way 
are they an injury? 

What is a labor union? For what purpose are they organized? De- 
scribe how they are organized into state federations and into a national 



luitancial and Industrial Legislation 269 

federation. In what way do labor unions and labor federations differ 
from corporations and trusts? In what way are labor unions of great 
value to laboring people and to the industrial development of the United 
States? In what way are they an injury to the nation? 

Are corporations, trusts and labor unions beneficial and necessary to 
the industrial development of the nation? Explain why they constitute one 
of the greatest problems now before the American people, and why the 
great mass of the people should give them most careful consideration. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the issuing of unredeemable paper money during the Civil 
War and the resumption of specie payment. Discuss the issuing of bonds 
during the Civil War and the establishment of the National Bank System. 
Discuss gold and silver standards with especial reference to the uses of 
silver as a standard money since the Civil War. Beginning with the year 
i860, give a careful discussion of the tariff legislation of the United States. 
Discuss corporations, trusts and labor unions. 



270 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 
FOREIGN RELATIONS 

I Purchase of Alaska, 1867 

In October of 1867 the United States purchased Alaska. 
a territory containing 590,000 square miles, from Russia 
for about $7,000,000. At that time Alaska was thought to 
be valuable only for its furs, fisheries and lumber, but valu- 
able mineral deposits have since been opened there, and it 
no doubt possesses other valuable resources. 

II Treaty of Washington, 1871 

The treaty of Washington provided for the settlement by 
arbitration of the questions in dispute between the United 
States and Great Britain. These questions were : The dis- 
puted boundary line between British Columbia and the ter- 
ritory of Washington, the rights of American fishermen in 
Canadian waters, and the claim of the United States for 
damages for the destruction of American commerce during 
the Civil War by vessels fitted out in British ports. This 
last mentioned is known as the "Alabama Claims " and was 
settled by the board of arbitration which awarded $15,500,000 
damages to the United States. This treaty is important, 
because it is the first notable example of the voluntary arbi- 
tration by two great nations of questions in dispute. 

III Application of the Monroe Doctrine 
I. The French in Mexico, 1861-186/ 

During the Civil War a French Army had been sent 
into Mexico, and a French Empire had been established 
with Maximilian, an Austrian Archduke, as Emperor. 
Soon after the close of the war, the Secretary of State 
intimated to the French government that the United States 
was now in a position to enforce the principles of the 
Monroe Doctrine, and the French soldiers were at once 
removed from Mexico. 



Foreign Relations 271 

2. The I'enesiielan Boundary, jSgj 

Great Britain and Venezuela could not agree upon the 
boundary between their territory in South America. Vene- 
zuela appealed to the United States and the United States 
asked Great Britain to submit the question to arbitration 
in accordance with the Monroe Doctrine. Great Britain 
claimed that the world had outgrown that doctrine. On 
receiving a note from the British government containing 
these views, Cleveland, with the authority of Congress, 
appointed a commission to determine the boundary in dis- 
pute. In a proclamation to Congress he stated that when 
the boundary line had been determined by the commission, 
the United States would fight if necessary in order to main- 
tain it. England then consented to have the matter sub- 
mitted to arbitration. The firm stand of Cleveland served 
as a notice to the world that the United States would 
strictlv enforce the Monroe Doctrine. 

IV Growth of Arbitration 

I. Application of the Principles of Arbitration 

The principle of arbitration has for some time been em- 
ployed in the settling of domestic difficulties in the United 
States, such as disputes between laborers and their em- 
ployers. This has been particularly effective in the settle- 
ment of great strikes which have threatened the various 
industries of the nation, and even in some cases the welfare 
of the whole nation. An instance of this latter kind may be 
found in the great coal strike of 1902-1903 in the Pennsyl- 
vania coal fields, which was settled by arbitration after 
causing great injury to industries and untold suffering 
among the people of the nation. As has been stated, the 
settlement of disputes between Great Britain and the 
United States by a board consisting of arbitrators appointed 
by outside nations was the first notable application of arbi- 
tration to international affairs. It marked a distinct 



272 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

advance in the settlement of international questions and 
has since become recognized as the best way in which to 
deal with many international difficulties. 

2. The Hague Tribunal, iSpp 

In 1899, at the suggestion of the Czar of Russia, dele- 
gates from twenty-six nations met at the Hague in 
Holland for the purpose of providing for a permanent 
Court of Arbitration for the settlement of difficulties be- 
tween nations without their going to war. The work of 
this conference met with the heartiest approval of the 
various nations of the world, and as a result the Hague 
Tribunal of Peace has been established. It is the object 
of this tribunal to settle all such questions arising between 
nations as may be submitted to it justly and fairly, and 
to thus promote the peace and welfare of the world. The 
United States has been among the foremost in urging the 
principles of arbitration. 

V The Spanish-American War, 1898 

I. Causes 

The remote cause of this war was the Spanish mis-gov- 
ernment of her West Indian possessions, which caused con- 
tinual rebellion among the inhabitants and endangered 
American property interests there. Moreover the American 
people felt a great deal of sympathy for the people who 
were struggling to establish a republican government, and 
against whom a cruel and bloody warfare was being waged 
to crush this rebellion. The immediate cause of the war 
was the destruction of the American battleship Maine, in 
the harbor of Havana, with the loss of more than two 
hundred and fifty sailors. It has not yet been proven, but 
it was generally believed that the destruction of the vessel 
was due to the Spaniards. At any rate it served to arouse 
the people of the United States and led directly to the 
war for the independence of Cuba. 



Foreign Relations 273 

2. Campaigns 

(a) Naval Warfare 

The American navy decided the success of the United 
States in this war. Two naval battles were fought, one 
off the southern coast of Cuba, and one in the Philippine 
Islands which belonged to Spain, and where a part of the 
Spanish navy was stationed. In these two battles the 
Spanish navy was practically destroyed, without the 
loss to the American forces of a single ship, and with the 
loss of but one man. With her navy destroyed, Spain 
could not hope to make any effective resistance on the 
land, either in the Philippines or in the West Indies. 

(b) The War on Land 

The chief land campaign of the war had for its object 
the capture of Santiago. Two vigorous battles were 
fought at El Caney and San Juan before the city was 
captured by the Americans. Another successful cam- 
paign was begun at Porto Rico, but was soon stopped 
by the declaration of peace. A third army was sent to 
the Philippines, where it aided in the capture of the chief 
city, Manila. 

3. Results 

The war itself was of comparatively little importance, 
but its results are of great importance to the United States. 
As an immediate result Cuba became independent of Spain 
and the United States gained considerable territory in the 
management of which she has entered upon some new 
policies. 

(a) Territorial Results 

By the treaty of peace after the close of the war the 
United States acquired the Philippine Islands, Guam, 
Porto Rico and other Spanish West Indian Islands, giv- 
ing Spain in return $20,000,000. This war had shown 



274 RECONSTRUCTIOK, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

the military value of the Hawaiian Islands, and they were 
also annexed to the United States in 1898. The annex- 
ation of Hawaii had been proposed to the United States 
before, and would very likely have taken place in any 
event, but the war hastened it. 

(b) Political Results 

The political effect of this war is far reaching and 
may vitally affect the policy of the United States. If 
these possessions are treated as colonies, the United 
States may be compelled to mix in Asiatic and European 
affairs, thus to a certain extent abandoning the principle 
of neutrality established by Washington, to which the 
United States has always strictly adhered. Previous to 
the acquisition of this territory all of the country acquired 
by the United States had been practically unsettled, leav- 
ing for the American people the development of its 
resources and its preparation for becoming an integral 
part of the Union. Most .of the territory acquired from 
Spain during the recent war is thickly populated, and if 
it be held as colonial possessions, and the constitution of 
the United States be not permitted to extend over it, 
a new principle will have entered into the American 
government. These questions belong to the future, and 
their solution will make some of the most important 
work of American statesmen. 

IV The Isthmian Canal 

As early as 1850 the building of a ship canal through some 
part of Central America was discussed, and a treaty made 
between England and America regarding the neutrality of 
such canal when built. From time to time treaties were made 
concerning a canal to be built through Central America, but 
nothing was accomplished. The Spanish-American war em- 
phasized the value of such a canal, and in 1901 the matter was 
taken up again. A second treaty was then made with Eng- 



Foreign Relations 275 

land, guaranteeing the neutrality of the proposed canal, but 
giving the United States the right of ownership and defense. 
The construction of the canal was then taken up by Congress. 
Two routes were proposed, one by way of Nicaragua and the 
other by way of Panama. A large sum was appropriated 
for the construction of the canal and negotiations were at 
once begun with Colombia for a canal by way of Panama. 
Upon the rejection by Colombia of the treaty giving the 
United States the power to construct the canal, Panama 
revolted and established a republic which was at once recog- 
nized by the United States and the other leading nations. 
The United States succeeded in making very favorable ar- 
rangements with the government of Panama and the treaty 
arranged by representatives of the United States and Panama 
was promptly ratified by both governments in 1904, and 
work on the canal was at once begun. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Foreign Relations) 

I 

How did the United States secure Alaska? Describe this territory. 
Of what value is it to the United States? 

II 

Describe the conditions which led to the making of the Treaty of 
Washington. What were the provisions of the treaty? Explain the im- 
portance of this treaty. 

Ill 

Describe the conditions in Mexico during the Civil War. Explain how 
the principles of the Monroe Doctrine applied to these conditions. Dis- 
cuss the Venezuelan boundary dispute and the application of the Monroe 
Doctrine to this case. How did the Monroe Doctrine apply to the recent 
blockade of the ports of Venezuela? 

IV 
(The teacher should consult magazines covering this period for ma- 
terial on this topic. The American Review of Reviezvs is especially valu- 
able.) What is meant by arbitration? Describe the appointing of a board 
of arbitration. Give examples of its use in settling difficulties between 



276 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

laborers and their employers in the United States. Of what value is arbi- 
tration in cases of this kind? Give instances of the application of the 
principle of arbitration to international affairs affecting the United States. 
Discuss the establishment of The Hague Peace Tribunal. Discuss its im- 
portance and give instances of disputes which it has adjusted. 

V 

Discuss the causes of the Spanish-American War. Describe the lead- 
ing naval battles of this war, and discuss their effect. Describe the cam- 
paign for the capture of Santiago. (Each pupil should draw a map illus- 
trating the important battles of this war.) 

Discuss the terms of the treaty of peace. Tell all you can about the 
character and conditions of the territory acquired by the United States 
through this treaty. How did the Spanish-American War affect the an- 
nexation of Hawaii? (Each pupil should draw a map showing the ter- 
ritorial acquisitions of the United States as a result of this war.) How is 
the territory acquired by this war governed at the present time? Com- 
pare the government of Hawaii with that of the Philippine Islands. Com- 
pare the conditions in the territory acquired from Spain with those in the 
territory previously acquired by the United States. Why was a different 
policy adopted in the government of this new territory from that followed 
in the organization and government of the other territory of the United 
States? In what way, if in any, do the results of the Spanish- American 
War tend to violate the principle of American neutrality established by 
Washington ? 

VI 
Tell all you can of the history of the Panama Canal. (Each pupil 
should draw a map showing the two routes proposed.) Discuss the im- 
portance of an isthmian canal. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the application of the principles of the Monroe Doctrine dur- 
ing this period. Discuss the growth of arbitration in domestic and inter- 
national affairs. Discuss the Spanish-American War and its territorial 
results. Discuss the ways in which the form of government adopted by 
Congress for the territory secured from Spain tends to introduce new 
principles into the government of the United States. How may the re- 
sults of the Spanish-American War modify the principle of American 
Neutrality in European Affairs? Discuss the history and importance of 
the isthmian canal. 



Political Methods and Political Parties 277 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Political Methods 

The chief change in poHtical methods since the Civil War 
is the introduction of the Australian ballot system and its 
adoption throughout the Union. This removed opportunity 
for fraud and protected the secrecy of the ballot. It was a 
most important reform. A marked advance in the political 
methods is shown by the enaction of Civil Service Laws by 
which the appointment of many federal officers must be made 
on the basis of ability and not on the basis of political service. 
In 1 87 1 Congress passed a Civil Service Reform Act. This 
law gave the President the power of selecting a commission 
which should devise a better plan for the appointment of men 
to all offices under his control. Grant was anxious to enforce 
this law and better the Civil Service, but the members of 
Congress, desiring the offices for political purposes, refused 
to vote money to carry out the reform. As a result, it proved 
of little value. In 1883, Congress passed the "Pendleton Civil 
Service Act." This law gave the President the power of 
making appointments to office by means of examination, 
and officers thus appointed could not be removed so long as 
they did their work well. President Arthur placed a large 
number of offices under this civil service regulation, and 
President Cleveland increased the number. Many of the 
best citizens of the United States hope that this law marks the 
beginning of the downfall of the Spoils System. 

II Political Parties 

During most of the time since the Civil War, the Republi- 
can party has had control of the national government, but the 
Democratic party has always been strong enough to exert 
a powerful influence, and has twice succeeded in electing a 
president. Of the eleven presidents since 1864, Lincoln, 
Johnson, Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur, Harrison, Mc- 
Kinley and Roosevelt were Republicans, while Cleveland 



:i78 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

served two terms as a Democratic president. Immediately 
after the close of the war the chief political issue was the 
reconstruction of the seceded states. Since then the two 
main political issues between the Democratic and Republican 
parties have been the money question and the tariff question, 
although, of course, there have been many minor issues. The 
many industrial and social questions have given rise to a num- 
ber of other political parties. Among these are the Populist 
or People's party, the Prohibition party, and the Socialist 
party. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Political Methods and Political Parties) 

I 

Describe the Australian ballot system. When and why was it adopted 
in the United States? Describe the provisions of each Civil Service Law 
passed by Congress since the Civil War. Discuss in full the importance 
of these laws and the conditions which led to their passage. 

II 
Discuss the leaders and principles of the Republican party since the 
Civil War. Discuss the leaders and principles of the Democratic party 
during this period. Describe the leading issues between these two parties 
during this period. Discuss the conditions causing the formation of other 
parties. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the Civil Service Laws and their importance. Discuss the 
leading political issues since the Civil War, and compare the positions of 
the Democratic and Republican parties on these issues. 



Institutional Life 279 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

The development of the institutional life of the United States 
since the Civil war has been remarkable, particularly along indus- 
trial lines. There has been very little change in the conditions 
of Government and Religion, except the natural development 
along lines laid down in the previous periods. Socially some new 
factors have entered into national life, and educationally the ad- 
vance of the nation has been marvelous. 

I Industrial Conditions 

The industrial progress of the United States since the 
Civil war has not been equalled in any other period of the 
world's history. This industrial development has afifected the 
entire institutional life of the nation, and has made the 
United States the wealthiest nation in the world. 

I. The Development of the Neiv West 

The discovery of gold and silver and other mineral mines 
in the Rocky Mountains and in the country lying west of 
these mountains early caused a great stream of immigration 
to start westward. At first the covered wagon was the prin- 
cipal means of transportation. Later came the overland 
stage-coach, and later still railroads reaching to the Pacific. 
These railways have had more influence on the development 
of the West than any other single factor. The recent dis- 
coveries of immense oil fields in California promise to make 
the Pacific Coast a more important manufacturing region, 
by supplying a cheap fuel, the lack of which has been a seri- 
ous drawback to manufacturing interests on the coast. The 
utilization of the mountain streams by converting their force 
into electric power is also furnishing cheap motive power. 
Another important factor in the development of the West has 
been the extensive use of irrigation by which arid lands have 
been made fertile, and homes for thousands of settlers have 



280 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

been created. The fact that the national government has 
decided to assist in reclaiming western lands by irrigation 
should result in greatly increasing the productive farming 
area of the West. 

2. The Nezv South 

The abolition of slavery produced a revolution in the labor 
system of the South. Before the War, as has been stated, 
slavery had been the corner stone of southern society. With 
the emancipation of the slaves this society passed away, and 
on its ruins rose a "New South," having free labor as its 
foundation. The South has gained greatly by this change. 
The production of cotton has more than doubled since i860. 
At that time the capital invested in southern manufacturing 
industries was so small as to scarcely require mentioning. 
There is now invested in machine-shops, mills and work- 
shops more than $50,000,000 of capital. Thousands of miles 
of railroads have been built. Coal and iron mines have been 
opened up. Atlanta, Chattanooga, New Orleans, Augusta, 
Birmingham, and other Southern cities now have manufactur- 
ing establishments which rival those of the North and West. 

3. Means of Transportation and Communication 

The development of the United States in these respects 
during the last forty years is remarkable. In i860 there were 
30,000 miles of railroads ; at the present time there are over 
200,000 miles and new roads are constantly being built. In 
i860 there were no railways west of the Missouri river. The 
first line reaching the Pacific was completed in 1869 and four 
other transcontinental lines have since been built, and, to- 
gether with their branches, have penetrated every part of the 
West. The railroads have been a most important agency 
in national industrial and social development. Realizing this, 
the government has done much to encourage the building of 
railroads. For this purpose it has given to railroad companies 
more than 200,000,000 acres of land and $60,000,000. In 



Institutional Life 281 

addition to railroads, street-car systems are in use in all the 
cities and even in the larger towns and in thickly populated 
suburban districts. The use of electricity as a motive power 
has caused great improvements in transportation. Great 
steamship lines have been organized, and transportation by 
water much improved. The successful laying of oceanic 
cables has been accomplished during this last period, and now 
nearly all parts of the civilized world are in close communi- 
cation. The telephone, too, has been invented and perfected 
within the last thirty years. The effect of this great advance 
in means of transportation and communication can hardly 
be over-estimated. It has aided the industrial growth of the 
nation by making it possible to develop the great natural re- 
sources of the country, especially of the interior part. It has 
also had a profound effect on the industrial development of 
the country by creating an immense home market for the 
products of all parts of the nation. If the railroads did not 
exist, a large share of the products of many parts of the 
United States would never find a market. The improved 
means of transportation and communication have also ex- 
erted a great and beneficial influence on the nation socially 
by bringing the people into closer touch, doing away with 
sectionalism, and thus promoting the growth of a true na- 
tional life. 

4. Manufactures 

In i860 the manufactured products of the United States 
were valued at $4,000,000,000. The estimated annual value 
of the present output from its factories is over $12,000,000,- 
000, being greater than that of any other country in the world. 
The growth of the iron and steel industries is most remark- 
able. In i860 England led the world in the production of 
iron and steel. Now the United States is far in advance of 
that country. This is but a single instance of the rapid 
growth of manufacturing interests in the United States. 
Over 5,000,000 people are employed in her factories. Nearly 



282 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

all of her large cities are hives of industrial enterprise, and 
the products of her factories are carried to the markets of 
every country in the world. 

5. Agriculture 

Agriculture continues to be one of the leading industries. 
The developing of the Middle West and the Pacific Coast 
has placed the United States in the front rank of agricult- 
ural nations. The building of railroads and the extension of 
irrigation have been important factors in this agricultural 
development. Stock raising has also become an important 
industry in the West. Immense amounts of food stufifs are 
raised and exported by the United States and they form one 
of the chief sources of the wealth of the country. The 
United States furnishes 80 per cent of all the cotton raised in 
the world, and its annual exports of provisions, bread stufifs 
and cotton have a value of about $800,000,000. 

6. Commerce 

The growth of commerce has kept pace with that of manu- 
factures. On both the Atlantic and Pacific Coast are located 
great ship-building concerns, where not only American ves- 
sels, but also vessels of all kinds for foreign nations are 
built. The products of American factories and farms are 
carried to all parts of the world in American vessels. The 
total foreign commerce of the United States exceeds that of 
any other nation, and her domestic commerce is several times 
greater than that of any other nation. 

7. Foreign Immigration 

The immense foreign immigration since the Civil War has 
had a most important effect on industrial conditions in the 
United States. Without the labor of these immigrants many 
of the great industries could not have been built up. Their 
labor has been valuable particularly in the building of rail- 



Institutional Life 283 

roads and in the working of mines. Of late years, however, 
the immigrants have been of a lower class, and have come in 
such numbers that many believe that the continued practic- 
ally unlimited admission of immigrants is becoming a seri- 
ous menace to our institutions, and that Congress should pass 
stringent laws concerning immigration. 

II Social Conditions 

At the present time (1904) the population of the United 
States, not including Alaska and the territory secured as a 
result of the Spanish-American War, is about 80,000,000, or 
about two and a half times what it was at the close of the 
Civil War. There have been many changes in the social 
conditions during this time. Some of these changes have 
been for the better and some for the worse. The more impor- 
tant factors that have tended to change and modify the social 
conditions of the nation during this period are the negro 
question, the immense foreign immigration, the great in- 
dustrial advance with the resulting creation of vast private 
fortunes, and the improvement in means of transportation 
and communication. The last factor has done more than 
anything else to break down localism in manners and customs, 
and to unify the social life of the nation. The coming to 
the United States of so m.any of the worst classes of Europe 
is having an undesirable effect on social conditions, because 
these immigrants congregate in large cities and do not readily 
assimilate American customs and ideals. The negro ques- 
tion which was created by the emancipation and enfranchise- 
ment of the negroes, more vitally concerns the South. The 
solution of this question rests largely with the people of the 
South, and in this work they deserve the sympathy and co- 
operation of every citizen of the nation. Industrial educa- 
tion, such as is being carried on under the direction of Booker 
T. Washington, at the Tuskeegee Institute in Alabama, 
promises to be the most important factor in the solution of 
this problem. The great industrial development of the nation 



284 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

has tended, on the whole, to advance social conditions, because 
it has enabled the great mass of the people to have better 
homes, better clothes, better food, and more luxuries, and to 
enjoy more fully the pleasures of social life. On the other 
hand the tendency of large private fortunes is to create class 
distinctions based on wealth. While there are some undesir- 
able tendencies and conditions in the social life of the nation, 
the great improvement along industrial lines has caused and 
is causing a steady improvement in social conditions, 

III Education 

In no respect has the advance of the United States since 
the Civil War been more marked than in the matter of edu- 
cation, and especially is this true in the South. This great 
advance in education throughout the United States is seen in 
the present condition of the public school system and in 
numerous institutions of higher education ; in the number and 
quality of newspapers and magazines ; in institutes, conven- 
tions and clubs of various kinds, which have for their object 
mutual improvement ; and in the number of museums, 
libraries and art galleries. 

I. Tlic Public Elementary School System 

The free elementary public school system as it exists in the 
United States to-day has been built up and developed al- 
most entirely since the Civil War. There were public schools 
before the Civil War and they were doing an excellent work, 
but there were not many free public schools before that time 
and in efficiency and equipment those schools were far infer- 
ior to those of to-day. Just before the Civil War the people 
were beginning to demand free public schools as a right, and 
this soon resulted in placing the general management of the 
school system under the control of state school officials and 
in the levying of state school taxes. This was a new prin- 
ciple in education, for before, such matters had been left 
almost entirelv in the hands of citv and countv officials. At 



Institutional Life 285 

the present time the constitutions of nearly ah the States 
make ample provision for the maintenance of the free public 
schools. Nearly all of the states west of the Alleghany moun- 
tains, under the direction of Congress, set aside, at the time 
of their organization, certain lands in each township for the 
support of public schools. In most cases these lands have 
been sold, and the money obtained from their sale constitutes 
a school fund, the interest on which is used for school pur- 
poses. When additional money is needed it is raised by direct 
local and state taxation. 

Although each state has its own school system, and there 
is a wide difference as to the length of school terms, qualifica- 
tions and salaries of teachers, courses of study and similar 
matters, there are strong forces at work which tend to make 
the schools uniform throughout the United States. xAmong 
these forces are state and national educational associations, 
and the National Bureau of Education, the latter being under 
the direct control of the national government. 

2. The Public High School System 

The advance in high school education during this period, 
has been as great and as important as the improvement in 
the elementary schools. The whole pubHc high school sys- 
tem has been developed largely within the last forty years, 
the number of high schools doubling within the last ten years. 
The high schools have been aptly termed the colleges of the 
common people. Their service in strengthening the work of 
the elementary schools and in giving the young people of 
all classes an opportunity for a higher education, can hardly 
be overestimated. Many of the public high schools in the 
United States to-day offer courses of study of as high grade 
as did Yale and Harvard a hundred years ago. 

3. Universities and Colleges 

The growth of the state universities is one of the most not- 
able features of the advance in education. Nearly every 



286 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

state in the Union has estabHshed an institution of this kind, 
supported by taxation, grants of public land, and appropria- 
tions by the legislatures. Several great institutions of learn- 
ing and numerous smaller colleges have been established 
throughout the United States by private individuals. These 
institutions of higher education are having an important 
effect on American character and ideals. 

4. Special ScJwols 

There have been established within the United States dur- 
ing this period many special schools, among which are nor- 
mal schools for the training of teachers ; medical schools for 
the training of physicians and surgeons ; law schools for the 
training of lawyers ; and many other technical schools for the 
training of men and women along professional and techni- 
cal lines. 

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS RECITATIONS 
(Institutional Life) 

I 

What has been the nature of the industrial development of the United 
States since the Civil War? What effect has the discovery of gold, silver 
and other metals had on the development of the New West? Discuss 
fully the effect of the railroad and telegraph on this development. What 
has been the effect of irrigation, the use of electricity for motive power, 
and the recent discovery of vast quantities of oil which is being used as 
a cheap fuel? Discuss the general growth of the New West. 

What is meant by the New South? Explain fully how the destruc- 
tion of slavery made possible the growth of the New South. Describe 
fully the industrial development of the South since the Civil War. 

Describe fully the great improvement in the means of transportation 
and communication since 1865. Explain fully how this great improvement 
has affected the industrial and social conditions of the nation. 

Discuss the growth of manufactures since i860. Describe the growth 
of agriculture. Discuss the growth of commerce. Discuss foreign im- 
migration. Why should Congress give this question serious consideration? 

II 

In what way has the negro question become an important factor in 
social conditions? How is foreign immigration related to social condi- 



Institutional Life 287 

tions? Explain how the great industrial development of the nation since 
the Civil War has afifected social conditions. 

Ill 

In what way do the states assist in public education? Discuss how the 
principle of state control of education has developed, and how the national 
government has assisted in its growth. Discuss the growth of public 
elementary education since 1865. Discuss the growth of public high school 
education. How does the advance of the South in educational matters since 
the Civil War compare with that of the rest of the nation? To what is this 
great advance due? What forces are tending to unify the educationa 
work in the United States? 

In what way do the states assist higher education? Discuss the great 
growth of colleges and universities since 1865. What is the value of 
these institutions? Name several kinds of special or technical schools. 
Discuss the growth of these schools since 1865. What is the value of these 
schools? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the industrial development of the United States since the 
Civil War. Discuss the changes in social conditions. Discuss the growth 
and improvement along educational lines. 



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New Pacific Geography — California Edition — Harr Wagner - 100 
Practical Aids to Literature, No. i— Irving's Selections— J. W. Graham 25 



JUN 9 1904 



